The Canadian Armed Forces (CAF; French: Forces armées canadiennes, FAC) are the unified military forces of Canada, including sea, land, air, and special operations forces commands referred to as the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Air Force, and Canadian Special Operations Forces Command. Under the National Defence Act, the Canadian Armed Forces are an entity separate and distinct from the Department of National Defence (the federal government department responsible for the administration and formation of defence policy), which also exists as the civilian support system for the forces.
The commander-in-chief of the Canadian Armed Forces is the Governor General. The chief of the Defence Staff is the professional head of the Canadian Armed Forces, who under the direction of the minister of national defence and together with the assistance of the Armed Forces Council, manages the operations of the Canadian Armed Forces.
In 2026–2027, Canada's military expenditures are budgeted at approximately US$37.75 billion, or around 1.6 percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP). The Canadian Armed Forces are a professional volunteer force that consists of approximately 100,000 personnel, split between approximately 68,000 active personnel and 32,000 reserve personnel, with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 Canadian Rangers.
Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its positive global image. Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations (UN), such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts greatly declined, with its military participation reallocated to UN-sanctioned operations through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
The CAF operates several other commands, including Canadian Forces Intelligence Command, Canadian Joint Operations Command, and Canadian Special Operations Forces Command. Personnel may belong to either the Regular Force or the Reserve Force, which has four sub-components: the Primary Reserve, Supplementary Reserve, Cadet Organizations Administration and Training Service, and the Canadian Rangers.
History
Origins and establishment
Prior to Confederation in 1867, residents of the colonies in what is now Canada served as regular members of French and British forces and in local militia groups. The latter aided in the defence of their respective territories against attacks by other European powers, Indigenous peoples, and later American forces during the American Revolutionary War and War of 1812, as well as in the Fenian raids, Red River Rebellion, and North-West Rebellion. Consequently, the lineages of some Canadian Army units stretch back to the late 18th century, when militia units were formed to assist in the defence of British North America against invasion by the United States.
The responsibility for military command remained with the British Crown-in-Council, with a commander-in-chief for North America stationed in Halifax until the final withdrawal of British Army and Royal Navy units from the city in 1906. Thereafter, the Royal Canadian Navy was formed, and, with the advent of military aviation, the Royal Canadian Air Force. These forces were organized under the Department of Militia and Defence, and split into the Permanent and Non-Permanent Active Militias—frequently shortened to simply The Militia. By 1923, the department was merged into the Department of National Defence.
The first significant overseas deployment of Canadian military forces occurred during the Second Boer War when several units were raised to serve under British command. Similarly, when the United Kingdom entered into conflict with Germany in the First World War, Canadian troops were called to participate in European theatres. Battles that are particularly notable to the Canadian military include the Second Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Somme, the Battle of Vimy Ridge, the Second Battle of Passchendaele, as well as a series of attacks undertaken by the Canadian Corps during the Hundred Days Offensive.
During this period, a distinctly Canadian army and navy were established, followed by an air force, that, because of the constitutional arrangements at the time, remained effectively under the control of the British government until Canada gained legislative independence from the United Kingdom in 1931, in part due to the distinguished achievement and sacrifice of the Canadian Corps in the First World War. In November 1940, the Canadian militia was formally renamed the Canadian Army. However, in the 1950s, Reserve Army forces were once again referred to in official documentation as "Militia", which, although rare, is still used to refer to part-time members.
Canadian Forces entered the Second World War in September 1939, after the Canadian Crown-in-Council declared war on Nazi Germany. Battles and campaigns during the Second World War that was particularly notable to the Canadian military include the Battle of the Atlantic, the Battle of Britain, the Battle of Hong Kong, the Dieppe Raid, the invasion of Sicily and Italy, Operation Overlord, the Siegfried Line Campaign, Operation Veritable, as well as the strategic bombing of German cities.
Conscription for overseas service was introduced only near the end of the war, and only 2,400 conscripts made it into battle.
At the end of the Second World War, Canada possessed the fourth-largest air force and fifth-largest naval surface fleet in the world. At one point, Canada was thought to have the third-largest navy in the world, but with the fall of the Soviet Union, new data based on Japanese and Soviet sources found that to be incorrect.
Since 1947, Canadian military units have participated in more than 200 military operations in the world, and completed 72 international operations. Canadian soldiers, sailors, and aviators are considered world-class professionals through conspicuous service during these conflicts and the country's integral participation in NATO during the Korean War, First Gulf War, Kosovo War, and in United Nations Peacekeeping operations, such as the Suez Crisis, Golan Heights, Cyprus, Croatia, Bosnia, Afghanistan, and Libya.
Canada operated an aircraft carrier from 1957 to 1970 during the Cold War. It never engaged in combat but participated in patrols during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
Since unification
The current iteration of the Canadian Armed Forces dates from 1 February 1968, when the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force were merged into a unified structure and superseded by elemental commands, known as Air Command, Land Force, and Maritime Command. On 16 August 2011, the names for the three elemental commands were reverted to their historical predecessor, although the unified structure of the Canadian Armed Forces was maintained.
Deployment of Land Forces during this period has included NATO efforts in Europe, peacekeeping operations within United Nations-sanctioned conflicts and combat missions. The Canadian Forces deployed in Afghanistan until 2011, under the NATO-led United Nations International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), at the request of the Government of Afghanistan.
The Forces have also deployed domestically to provide aid during emergencies and natural disasters. Over 8,500 military personnel were sent to Manitoba after the 1997 Red River flood to help with evacuation, building dikes, and other flood-fighting efforts. The operation was considered a "public relations bonanza" for the military. The Forces were also deployed after the North American ice storm of 1998, with relief efforts beginning on 8 January, after the provinces of New Brunswick, Ontario, and Quebec requested aid. Over 16,000 troops were deployed, making it the largest deployment of troops ever to serve on Canadian soil in response to a natural disaster, and the largest operational deployment of Canadian military personnel since the Korean War. The Forces were also deployed to British Columbia from 3 August to 16 September 2003, as a part of Operation Peregrine. The operation was conducted after the province was overwhelmed by 800 separate forest fires, and the provincial government requested federal aid. Over 2,200 soldiers were mobilized, and at its height, more than 2,600 military personnel participated in the 45-day operation.
Early 2000s modernization efforts
The Constitution of Canada gives the federal government exclusive responsibility for national defence, and expenditures are thus outlined in the federal budget. For the 2007–2010 fiscal year, the amount allocated for defence spending was CA$6.15 billion which is 1.4 percent of the country's GDP. This regular funding was augmented in 2005 with an additional CA$12.5 billion over five years, as well as a commitment to increasing regular force troop levels by 5,000 persons, and the primary reserve by 4,500 over the same period. It was further augmented in 2010, with another CA$5.3 billion over five years being provided to allow for 13,000 more regular force members, and 10,000 more primary reserve personnel, as well as CA$17.1 billion for the purchase of new trucks for the Canadian Army, transport aircraft and helicopters for the Royal Canadian Air Force, and joint support ships for the Royal Canadian Navy.
In 2008, the Government of Canada began efforts, through the "Canada First Defence Strategy", to modernize the Forces, through the purchase of new equipment, improved training and readiness, as well as the establishment of the Canadian Special Operations Regiment. More funds were also put towards recruitment, which had been dwindling throughout the 1980s and 1990s, possibly because the Canadian populace had come to perceive the Forces as peacekeepers rather than as soldiers, as shown in a 2008 survey conducted by the Department of National Defence. The poll found that nearly two-thirds of Canadians agreed with the country's participation in the invasion of Afghanistan, and that the military should be stronger, but also that the purpose of the forces should be different, such as more focused on responding to natural disasters. Then Chief of Defence Staff (CDS) Walter Natynczyk said later that year that, while recruiting has become more successful, the Forces was facing a problem with its rate of loss of existing members, which increased between 2006 and 2008 from 6% to 9.2% annually.
Renewal and re-equipment efforts have resulted in the acquisition of specific equipment (main battle tanks, artillery, unmanned air vehicles and other systems) to support the mission in Afghanistan. It has also encompassed initiatives to renew certain so-called "core capabilities" (such as the air force's medium-range transport aircraft fleet—the C-130 Hercules—and the army's truck and armoured vehicle fleets). In addition, new systems (such as C-17 Globemaster III strategic transport aircraft and CH-47 Chinook heavy-lift helicopters) have also been acquired for the Forces.
Peacekeeping
Role of women
In the 1950s, the recruitment of women was open to roles in medicine, communication, logistics, and administration. The roles of women in the CAF began to expand in 1971 after the department reviewed the recommendations of the Royal Commission on the Status of Women, at which time it lifted the ceiling of 1,500 women personnel, and gradually expanded employment opportunities into the non-traditional areas—vehicle drivers and mechanics, aircraft mechanics, air-traffic controllers, military police, and firefighters.
The department further reviewed personnel policies in 1978 and 1985, after Parliament passed the Canadian Human Rights Act and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. As a result of these reviews, the department changed its policies to permit women to serve at sea in replenishment ships and a diving tender, with the army service battalions, in military police platoons and field ambulance units, and most air squadrons.
In 1987, occupations and units with the primary role of preparing for direct involvement in combat on the ground or at sea were still closed to women: infantry, armoured corps, field artillery, air defence artillery, signals, field engineers, and naval operations. On 5 February 1987, the minister of national defence created an office to study the impact of employing men and women in combat units. These trials were called Combat-Related Employment of Women.
All military occupations were open to women in 1989, except submarine service, which opened in 2000. Throughout the 1990s, the introduction of women into the combat arms increased the potential recruiting pool by about 100 percent. Women were fully integrated into all occupations and roles by the government of Jean Chrétien, and by 8 March 2000, even allowed to serve on submarines.
All equipment must be suitable for a mixed-gender force. Combat helmets, rucksacks, combat boots, and flak jackets are designed to ensure women have the same level of protection and comfort as their male colleagues. Women's uniforms are similar in design to men's uniforms, but conform to the female figure, and are functional and practical. Women are also provided with an annual financial entitlement for the purchase of bras.
In 2019, the National Post columnist Christie Blatchford reported, per an anonymous source, that the CAF had been fulfilling employment equity targets for internal job postings by secretly rejecting applications from white males, and by not requiring Indigenous candidates to either write or pass, the Canadian Forces Aptitude Test. However, Brigadier-General Virginia Tattersall (commander of military forces generation, including the Canadian Forces Recruiting Group [CFRG]) said, "There are no occupations that we restrict based on gender", though "diversity is a consideration" and near the end of the recruiting year, "We will look at diversity applicants first."
In March 2021, Lieutenant-Colonel Eleanor Taylor resigned citing sexual misconduct among the top brass. Since then, the CAF has been under pressure over allegations of sexual misconduct. Former justice Louise Arbour, who was tasked to lead a probe into military harassment and sexual misconduct claims in CAF in 2021, issued 48 recommendations to change the culture of the CAF. She said that she saw no basis for the CAF to retain the jurisdiction over sexual offences as it has not improved efficiency, discipline and morale.
Structure
The Crown has long occupied a central position in the Canadian Armed Forces. The National Defence Act states that "the Canadian Forces are the armed forces of Her Majesty raised by Canada, consisting of one service called the Canadian Armed Forces" and the Constitution Act, 1867, vests command-in-chief of the Forces in the country's sovereign, who, since 1904, has authorized his or her viceroy, the governor general, to exercise the duties ascribed to the post of commander-in-chief and, since 1905, hold the associated title. All troop deployment and disposition orders, including declarations of war, fall within the royal prerogative. They previously were issued as orders-in-Council, which must be signed by either the monarch or governor general, but since 1992 deployments have been authorised by the cabinet (until 2003) or by a letter of the prime minister. Under the Westminster system's parliamentary customs and practices, however, the monarch and viceroy must generally follow the advice of his or her ministers in Cabinet, including the prime minister and minister of national defence, who are accountable to the elected House of Commons.
The Canadian Forces' 92,600 personnel are divided into a hierarchy of numerous ranks of officers and non-commissioned members. The governor general appoints, on the advice of the prime minister, the chief of the Defence Staff (CDS) as the highest-ranking commissioned officer in the Armed Forces and its commander. In this role, the CDS heads the Armed Forces Council, which also includes the vice chief of the Defence Staff and the commanders of the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Air Force, Canadian Joint Operations Command, Canadian Special Operations Forces Command, as well as certain other designated personnel. The Armed Forces Council generally operates from National Defence Headquarters (NDHQ) in Ottawa, Ontario. The sovereign and most other members of the Canadian Royal Family also act as colonels-in-chief, honorary air commodores, air commodores-in-chief, admirals, and captains-general of Canadian Forces units, though these positions are ceremonial.
The Canadian Forces operate out of 27 Canadian Forces bases (CFB) across the country, including NDHQ. This number has been gradually reduced since the 1970s with bases either being closed or merged. Both officers and non-commissioned members receive their basic training at the Canadian Forces Leadership and Recruit School in Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu. Officers will generally either directly enter the Canadian Armed Forces with a degree from a civilian university or receive their commission upon graduation from the Royal Military College of Canada. Specific element and trade training is conducted at a variety of institutions throughout Canada, and to a lesser extent, the world.
As of 2013, the Canadian Forces have 68,000 Regular Force members and 27,000 reservists, bringing the total force to approximately 95,000. These individuals serve on numerous Canadian Forces bases in all regions of the country and are governed by the Queen's Regulations and Orders and the National Defence Act.
Canadian Army
The Canadian Army is the land component of the Canadian Armed Forces, organized into five geographic divisions that command brigade groups and their subordinate combat and support units, enabling the generation and deployment of land forces for domestic and international operations.
Royal Canadian Navy
The Royal Canadian Navy is the maritime component of the Canadian Armed Forces, organized into two operational fleets, Atlantic and Pacific supported by naval aviation, training, and shore-based establishments, and responsible for generating and deploying naval forces for domestic and international operations.
Royal Canadian Air Force
The Royal Canadian Air Force is the air and space component of the Canadian Armed Forces, organized into numbered air divisions and wings that command flying squadrons and support units, enabling the generation and employment of air power for domestic and international operations.
1 Canadian Air Division (CAD)
2 Canadian Air Division (2 CAD)
3 Canadian Space Division (3 CSD)
Royal Canadian Air Force Aerospace Warfare Centre (RCAF AWC)
Canadian Special Operations Forces Command
Canadian Special Operations Forces Command (CANSOFCOM) is a unified operational command of the Canadian Armed Forces that oversees Canada’s special operations capabilities.
Canadian Forces Intelligence Command
Canadian Forces Intelligence Command (CFINTCOM) provides credible, timely and integrated defence intelligence capabilities, products and services to support Canada’s national security objectives.
Canadian Joint Operations Command
Canadian Joint Operations Command (CJOC) leads most Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) operations in Canada, North America, and around the world.
Military Personnel Command
Military Personnel Command (MILPERSCOM) provides functional direction and guidance to the Canadian Armed Forces on all matters pertaining to the management of military personnel.
Vice Chief of the Defence Staff
The Vice Chief of the Defence Staff ensures that Department of National Defence policy and strategic objectives are achieved. They govern the National Defence headquarters, and all HQ activities
Personnel
The personnel of the Canadian Armed Forces are divided into several employment types and environmental identities that help organize the military structure and define the roles of its members. Personnel may serve in the Regular Force, which consists of full-time military members, or in the Reserve Force, which includes part-time personnel who train and serve while often maintaining civilian careers or education.