The Beta Israel, or Ethiopian Jews, are a Jewish group originating in the Amhara and Tigray regions of northern Ethiopia, where they historically inhabited more than 500 small villages. The majority are concentrated in what is today North Gondar Zone, Shire Inda Selassie, Welkait, Tselemti, Dembia, Segelt, Qwara Province, and Belesa. Since their official recognition as Jewish under Israel's Law of Return, most of the Beta Israel have made aliyah from Ethiopia to Israel through several Israeli government initiatives starting in 1979.
The community suffered extensive destruction in the 19th century due to the Mahdist War, as well as persecution by the Ethiopian Empire. In response to these pressures, and influenced by the efforts of Protestant and Messianic Jewish missionaries, a portion of the community converted to Christianity. These converts became known as the Falash Mura. The Beta Abraham community is considered by some to be a crypto-Judaic branch of the Beta Israel.
The Beta Israel first made extensive contact with other Jewish communities in the early 20th century, after which a comprehensive rabbinic debate ensued over whether they are to be considered Jewish. Following halakhic and constitutional discussions, Israeli authorities decided in 1977 that the Beta Israel qualified on all fronts for the Israeli Law of Return. Thus, the Israeli government, with support from the United States, began a large-scale effort to conduct transport operations and bring the Beta Israel to Israel in multiple waves. These activities included Operation Banyarwanda, Operation Brothers, which evacuated the Beta Israel community in Sudan between 1979 and 1990 (including Operation Moses in 1984 and Operation Joshua in 1985), and Operation Solomon in 1991. At the end of 2019, there were 155,300 Ethiopian Jews in Israel. Approximately 87,500 were born in Ethiopia, and 67,800 were born in Israel to Ethiopian-born parents. The community in Israel is mostly composed of Beta Israel (practicing both Haymanot and Rabbinic Judaism), but also includes smaller numbers of Falash Mura who left Christianity and began practicing Rabbinic Judaism following their immigration to the country.
Terminology
The Beta Israel community, (literally, the 'house of Israel' in Ge'ez), has been known by several names throughout its history.
The local populace called them the Esraelawi (Israelites), Yehudi or Ayhud.
However, the name Ayhud (lit. the "Jewish people") is rarely used by the Beta Israel community, because in the past, Ethiopian Christians used it as a derogatory term. The usage of the term increased during the 20th century as the Beta Israel strengthened its ties with other Jewish communities.
Within the community, the term Ibrawi (lit. "Hebrew") was used in reference to the chawa (lit. "free man," see Chewa regiments) in the community, in contrast to the barya (lit. "slave").
The colloquial Ethiopian/Eritrean term Falasha or Felasha, which means "landless", "wanderers", or "exiles", was given to the community in the 15th century by the Emperor Yeshaq I; after they were conquered by the Ethiopian Empire, its use is now considered offensive, though initially it may have not been considered derogatory. The term appears in Jewish texts in the 15th century (Hebrew: פֶלַאשַה).
Other terms which have been less-frequently used in reference to the community include Tebiban ("possessor of secret knowledge").
Geography
Prior to the large-scale emigration of the community to Israel, they were primarily located in the northwestern regions of Ethiopia, historically known as Abyssinia. The majority of the community lived in areas such as the Semien Mountains, Begemder, Tsegede, Wolqayt, Tselemti, Dembiya, and Segelt. Smaller groups also resided in the Shewa region, including Addis Ababa, and in parts of Eritrea, particularly Asmara. The settlements were situated along the tributaries of the Tekezé River and near Lake Tana, the source of the Blue Nile. This area included the Simien Mountains, which includes Ras Dashen, the highest peak in Ethiopia- reaching an elevation of 4,549 meters. While the high-altitude terrain above 3,000 meters provided strategic advantages for defense and served as natural fortifications, it was difficult for farming due to thin, rocky soil and steep slopes. The mountain air in these highlands, known locally as Dega, is regarded as conducive to good health, longevity, and physical vitality.
The communal settlements were typically situated near streams, rivers, and mountainous areas, often at elevations of 2,000 to 3,000 meters above sea level, within a climate zone called Waina Dega (meaning "Vineland" in Amharic). This zone has a temperate climate with average temperatures ranging between 2.5 °C and 18 °C. The region receives significant rainfall, averaging around 1,550 millimeters annually, with two distinct rainy seasons. The area also benefits from fertile soil, making it suitable for agriculture, although the steep, rocky terrain at higher elevations, like those found in the Simien Mountains, can present challenges for farming.
Beta Israel communities typically avoided lowland areas (below 2,000 meters), known as Kolla, due to the risks posed by tropical diseases like Malaria, parasites, and dangerous wildlife and the threat posed by potentially hostile neighboring tribes. However, during waves of emigration to Israel, members of the community were forced to cross hazardous lowland regions, this journey entailed significant hardship, and thousands perished, particularly during prolonged periods of waiting in refugee camps located in the Sudanese desert and in Addis Ababa.
History
Ancient history
The earliest archaeological evidence indicating the presence of Jews in the region comes from two incense burners discovered at Adi Qereh site near the ancient capital Yeha of Dʿmt, inscribed in Sabaic and dated to approximately 600 BCE. These inscriptions refer to "Hebrews" living among the local population. Showing an early Jewish presence in the area, before the destruction of the First temple in Jerusalem.
According to the researchers, these hereditary findings are consistent with archaeological findings on the penetration of crops domesticated in the Near East indicating that 2,500 years ago people from the Near East migrated to the Ethiopian Highlands bringing foreign crops such as wheats, barley and lentils.
In 325, Ezana of Axum proclaimed Christianity as the state religion, leading to the construction of monasteries and churches throughout the empire. An inscription from this period references an insurrection led by a rebel named Pinchas, whose insurgents revolted and retreated to the Simien Mountains. It also details the surrender and the raising of taxes from Simien to Aksum.
The collapse of the Himyar Kingdom occurred following a pogrom led by Dhu Nuwas, which targeted the Aksumites and local Christian communities in Najran. In response, Kaleb of Axum launched a military campaign, with the support of the Byzantine Empire, Justin II. This intervention led to the death of Dhu Nuwas and the subsequent Aksumite annexation of Himyar.
According to the account of the Greek traveler Cosmas Indicopleustes from Alexandria, a significant portion of Jews were either forcibly converted to Christianity or exiled to the barren mountain known as Semiani, which refers to the Simien Mountains. Aksumite inscriptions from the 6th century also record another outbreak of tensions between Jewish and Christian communities in Aksum.
In the 9th century, a traveler known as Eldad ha-Dani, often referred to as "The Danite," arrived in the city of Kairouan. Eldad claimed to come from an independent Jewish kingdom located in the mountains, south of Kush (modern-day Ethiopia). Eldad brought Halachic books with him, today scholars find it almost completely resembles the Halacha of the Beta Israel. Eldad asserted that his community did not adhere to the Talmud, but instead preserved a form of Judaism only adhering to the Written Torah. Upon his arrival, Eldad's claims were met with skepticism by the local Jewish community in Kairouan.
In response, the Jewish leaders sent a letter to Tzemach Gaon the Geon of Sura, a prominent halachic authority of the time, seeking clarification regarding Eldad's identity and religious practices. Tzemach Gaon affirmed that Eldad was indeed Jewish and said he belonged to the Tribe of Dan who settled in South of Cush, 135 years before the destruction of the First Temple. Eldad's works would be one of the first works bringing knowledge to the diaspora about the customs of the Beta Israel, his testimonies was also accepted and cited by the many prominent Geonim. His writings also gave to the rise of the legend Prester John.
In the mid 10th century, a revolt sparked, lead by Gudit, who lead a revolt and sparked chaos across the Kingdom. She was a princess of Gideon IV, the King of the Simien. After her father was killed in battle with the Aksumite Empire, Gudit inherited his throne. Eventually, she defeated the Aksumite. Though her origins are murky, Ethiopian and Arab sources depict her as a Jewish zealot. She's credited for "laying waste" onto Aksum in addition the burning of Debre Damo monastery, in which after the sacking her name was changed from Esther to Gudit. For the burning and destruction of Axum, regarded as a holy city, the Kebra Nagast uses it a pretext as grounds to persecute the Beta Israel. She's also credited for her assassinations and the fall of the Aksumite dynasty.
During this time, Arab writer Ibn Hawqal writes:
The land of Habash has been ruled by a woman for many years, and she killed the king of Abyssinia, and ruled by a people called the al-Dani [Danites]. To this day, she rules an independent kingdom, and her kingdom borders Abyssinia to the south.
Additionally, Gudit established trade relations with the Arab caliphates, a departure from the policies of previous Aksumite rulers, who had refrained from doing so in the past. As part of these diplomatic efforts, she sent a zebra to the King of Yemen, who in turn, presented it as a gift to the Abbasid Caliph, Al-Qadir. who mentions he received the gift from a Jewish woman, who had overthrown the King of Abyssinia. Following her death, Gudit was eventually supplanted by the Zagwe dynasty.
Tradition
There are numerous accounts and traditions concerning the arrival of Jews in Ethiopia. According to the main account of origin, the community descends from an ancient migration of the Tribe of Dan, when the Brothers war occurred, Jeroboam II, demanded that the Tribe of Dan was forced to fight to the Tribe of Judah, in which they refused and migrated to Ethiopia via Egypt. According to The Geon, Tzemach Gaon, the tribe of Dan migrated to Ethiopia 135 years before the destruction of the Solomon's Temple.
Axumite legends suggests that the Beta Israel are descended from emissaries sent by King Solomon to the Queen of Sheba, rather than from contemporaneous figures. However, the Beta Israel themselves reject the national history. Menachem Waldeman, a prominent researcher of the Beta Israel, identifies four origin stories among them, all of which trace their ancestry to the Tribe of Dan which migrated through Egypt.
The Hebrew Bible makes several references to the presence of Jews in the Land of Kush [Modern day Ethiopia and Sudan], and includes prophetic passages regarding their settlement in the area after the dispersion of the Israelites, and their redemption in the regathering. These references appear notably in the prophetic texts of the Book of Isaiah and the Book of Zephaniah. For example, in the Book of Isaiah, chapter 11, verse 11:
And it shall come to pass in that day, that the LORD shall set his hand again the second time to recover the remnant of his people, which shall be left, from Assyria, and from Egypt, and from Pathros, and from Cush, and from Elam, and from Shinar, and from Hamath, and from the islands of the sea.
The prophet Zephaniah prophesied after the destruction of the First temple that offerings of sacrifices will continue to be offered by Israelites across the River Kush (modern-day Ethiopia) in the Book of Zephaniah, chapter 3, verse 10:
From across the River Cush, my servants, daughters of my dispersed ones, will bring me my offering.
It seems that during the time of Isaiah and Zephaniah in the 8th and 7th centuries BCE, a Jewish community existed in these areas.
Middle Ages
The Jewish presence in the region of Abyssinia is notably documented by the 12th-century traveller and historian Benjamin of Tudela writing circa 1150, observed the Jews in the area and makes a clear mention of the community:“There are many Jews here. They are not subject to the Gentiles. They have cities and forts on the mountaintops, from where they raid the Christian Ethiopian Empire [...] they take spoils and make refuge in their mountains; no one prevails against them."Additionally, the Venitian explorer Marco Polo also references the existence of a large Jewish community in the region of "Abash," which coincides with modern-day Abyssina [Habash].
In 1270, Yekuno Amlak overthrew the Zagwe dynasty and claimed descent from the Aksumite nobility that had survived the massacre orchestrated by the 10th-century ruler, Gudit. He established the Solomonic dynasty, which would govern Ethiopia for the next eight centuries. On August 10, 1270, The Emperor stated: "I will destroy the Jews," a pronouncement aimed at consolidating support from the Christian population who had been embroiled in constant warfare for decades. At the time, many viewed the Beta Israel community as "squatters" or "immigrants."
At the same time, an Ethiopian Christian monk, Zena Marqos, nephew of the King Yekuno Amlak (1270–1285), wrote an account of the religion and history of the Beta Israel. His informant, a converted Jew to Christianity, says that they arrived during the reign of King Solomon.
Medieval Period
In 1329, while Emperor Amda Seyon I was engaged in military campaigns against the Muslims of the Sultanate of Ifat, intelligence reports from his spies began to reach him. These reports indicated that the Jews had started to burn churches and conduct sneak attacks on imperial soldiers who were occupying their homeland and trying to convert the population, specifically in the regions of Semien, Wagara, Tselemti, and Szeged. In response to this growing threat, the Emperor called upon Tsaga Christos, the governor of Begemder, to quell the unrest. Tsaga Christos was tasked with leading his own forces, bolstered by reinforcements from neighboring provinces, to neutralize the Jewish insurgents.
The Emperor's primary objective was to prevent the Jewish factions from invading the Christian kingdom's territories and potentially overthrowing the Christian rule, as had occurred in earlier times. Simultaneously, the Emperor's forces continued their engagement with the Muslim forces in the Dera. The rebellion was ultimately subdued, and historical sources report that "The Jews hid, but when the Christian forces arrived, they leaped into the abyss."
Following the successful suppression of the uprising, the commander of the imperial army sent an emissary to the Emperor to inform him that Tsaga Christos had triumphed over the Jewish fighters, defeated them, and seized considerable plunder. The remaining Jewish forces retreated into the Simien Mountains.
Persecution and Exile under Yeshaq I
Under Emperor Yeshaq I reign, tensions between the Jewish community and Ethiopia escalated. The emperor sought to extend his influence across the Empire and proposed that the leaders of Beta Israel become key members of the Ethiopian Empire. However, this offer, along with a subsequent tax increase, was met with resistance from the Jewish population, who rallied under their leader, Agor, to oppose the emperor's forces. The ensuing conflict took place in the Wagra region, where the emperor's superior military strength ultimately drove the Jewish army southward to the Simien Mountains. Following his conquest of a fertile area, the emperor proclaimed his victory. The Emperor later encouraged missionary activity in the area, establishing churches and baptizing many Jews who lived in the area under occupation into Christianity. The resistance of the local Jews led the Emperor to decree:"If he is baptized into the Christian religion, he will inherit his ancestral land, and he will not be Falasha".The term Falasha is derived from the root F-L-S/S in Geʽez, which translates to "invaders." In the context of the Beta Israel community, however, it encompasses additional meanings such as "foreigners," "squatters," and "immigrants." This broader interpretation reflects to the identity and historical experiences of the community as it is considered derogatory.
Persecution under Zara Yaqob
In 1445, Emperor Zara Yaqob married Seyon Moges daughter of Gideon V. The couple had three sons. In 1462, she was accused of espionage on behalf of the Jewish community during a rebellion launched while the Emperor was engaged in a campaign against the Adal Sultanate. The revolt was quickly suppressed, his wife was executed, and many Jewish leaders were imprisoned. Following the victory, Zara Yaqob adopted the title “Exterminator of the Jews.”
Toward the end of Zara Yaqob's reign, the legitimacy of his new heir, Baeda Maryam I, was questioned due to his mother's Jewish background and rumors of her continued adherence to Judaism. After her death, Baeda Maryam secretly arranged her burial at Makdas Maryam Church in Debre Birhan, allegedly bribing clergy to conceal the act. Upon discovering this, the Emperor ordered his son beaten, but later reconciled with him following pressure from the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.
Baeda Maryam was crowned emperor eight years after his mother's death and Zaga Amlak's escape. Accusations regarding his possible Jewish sympathies may have contributed to his decision to wage a prolonged military campaign, lasting seven years, against the Jewish population of Begemder province, led by General Markos.
Markos riots
General Markos, was a General under Emperor Baeda Maryam I. He was sent to quell the Jews, during his time, each Jewish settlement was responsible for a local governor who reported directly to him. Markos's actions included the demolition of synagogues and the establishment of churches in their place, the baptism of local Jews under threat, and the murder of people who refused to convert to Christianity. The fighting against the Jews continued uninterrupted because the emperor signed a peace treaty in 1465 with Sultan Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din, which gave Markos extensive freedom of action, as well as soldiers who were transferred from the borders to fight the Jews. Markos carried out a brutal inquisition, and when the leaders of the Jewish communities arrived he gave the order to behead them in revenge for the crucifixion of Jesus. The emperor's records state:And Markos fought against them and encamped for seven years at the foot of their hill, and then he defeated them with great effort and cunning, and delivered them into his hand, and conquered all their cities. And after that a counsel came to his heart, saying: How shall I forgive these accursed ones... It is better to destroy them than to let them live... He ordered the herald to proclaim: Every Falasha shall come to whom I have commanded, and whoever does not come, his house shall be destroyed and his property shall be forfeited. And after that all the Falashas gathered around Judge Marcus... Then he ordered his men to cut off their necks with the sword, and they consumed them, until their blood was shed, and their corpses filled the field. And the word of mockery which their fathers spoke on the day of the crucifixion of our Lord was fulfilled upon them, saying: Their blood be on us, and on our children.
In this period, most of the religious relics were either burnt or looted, included numerous sacred book. In addition, the Jews were unable to practice their religious traditions for 80 years and were exiled into foreign lands, and their land was transferred to the church and nobility. Any form of practicing Judaism was illegal at this time and punishable by death. The Jews were made to live as tenants under Governors who kept them under their supervision, due to this time of much persecution some of their religious laws and customs were lost forever which included the incorporation of some Christian elements. In order to avoid assimilation they made a religious law "Atancon" which made them avoid contact with non-Jews, and those who made contact with non-Jews had to immerse themselves before re-entering the community.
During this time, Rabbi Eliyahu of Ferrara, a highly respected Torah scholar from Italy, made Aliyah to the Land of Israel, passing through Egypt along the way. After a tortuous journey, he reached Jerusalem, on May 1, 1437. He makes pilgrimage and verifies the rumours that had reached Italy about the Tribe of Dan overcoming their enemies. In his letter he describes the Jews in Abyssinia:I think I have already told you what a young Jewish man told me about the residents of his area, who are their own masters and not subservient to others. They are surrounded by a great nation called Hubash... They have the Torah and an oral commentary, but they do not have the Talmud or our poskim. I studied several of their mitzvot, and found that some follow our opinion while others follow the opinion of the Karaites. They have the Book of Esther but not Hanukkah. They are a distance of three months away from us, and the River Gozen runs through their land."During this time many Ethiopian Jews appeared in Egypt and the Mediterranean, and was cashed in by the local Jewish communities and integrated, joined synagogues and communities. Between 1485 and 1488, Rabbi Obadiah ben Abraham of Bertinoro, meets two Jewish prisoners from Ethiopia who were sold into slavery and cashed by the Jews of Egypt, and integrated into their synagogues. The Rabbi, describes in a letter the Beta Israel were "mighty children of Israel" he writes in his letter that the Jewish kingdom lies within the borders of the Ethiopian Empire and the Christians managed to subdue the Jews after centuries of bloody battles:Indeed, what I have learned and know without a doubt is that on one of the borders of the kingdom of the Prester John (Abyssinia)... there the Israelites are certainly encamped, and they have five presidents or kings, and it is said that for hundreds of years they fought with the Prester John, great and mighty wars, and finally, in the summer, the hand of the Prester John prevailed over them and struck them with a great and mighty blow, and entered their lands and destroyed and exiled them, and almost all memory of Israel was lost from those places. And those who remained in them he decreed strange decrees to violate their religion, similar to the decrees that the Greek kingdom decreed in the days of the Hasmoneans... and their enemies returned to them a few souls of men and women and a great number of people from distant nations, and brought some of them to Egypt and the Jews redeemed them in Egypt. And I saw two of them in Egypt and they were dark, but not black like the Kushites, and I could not distinguish between them whether they kept the law of the Karaites or the law of the rabbis, because in some things they seemed to keep the law of the Karaites, in what "They said that there would be no fire in their houses on the Sabbath, and in other things they appear to be observing the teachings of the rabbis, and they say that they are referring to the Tribe of Dan... This is what I saw with my own eyes and heard with my own ears, even though the two men did not know the Holy language except a tiny bit, and their Arabic language is barely understood by the people of the land."Another letter from the rabbi after receiving letters from the Jews of Yemen about the difficult situation of Ethiopian Jews after the Markos riots that took place between 1465 and 1472:"... And we fear lest, God forbid, the rumor be true, for the voice is growing very strong. May God protect His children and His servants, Amen."
Early Rabbinic views
Rabbi David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra (RaDBaZ), a prominent 16th-century a Sephardic rabbinic authority and the Chief Rabbi of Egyptian Jewry, addressed the status of the Ethiopian Jews due to doubts whether they were Karaites or Rabbinites in his responsa. He ruled that the Jews of Ethiopia are not Karaites and empathetically ruled they're un-doubtfully Jewish and are descendants of the Tribe of Dan, who had settled in Abyssinia. This position arises within the context of Halachic discussions, leading to the call of Redemption of captives. Retrospectively Rabbi Yaakov de Castro, also known as the Morikash for his commentary on the Shulchan Aruch, followed his teachers ruling.
The issuing of this halakhic ruling by the Radbaz was later used for the advent of Operation Moses in which Rabbi Ovadia Yosef brought to Israeli government requesting to hasten action to bring the community to Israel.
Early Modern period
The Kabbalist Rabbi Abraham ben Eliezer Halevi the Elder, one of the exiles from Spain, emigrated to the Land of Israel and lived in Jerusalem, and wrote about the Jewish kingdom in Ethiopia. Halevi, who often dealt with calculations of redemption and the coming of the Messiah, thought that redemption was near and that the war of Ethiopian Jews against the Christian empire was the precursor of its arrival. in his epistle he refers to the Kingdom of Simien with their locality "Gideons" and writes that in the land of Habash there was "The harsh Kingdom of the mighty Jews". During this time, a Portuguese Kabbalist Solomon Molcho wrote an epistle regarding the Ethiopian community and believed they will be the ones who realise the coming of the Messiah.
During this period, numerous epistles were composed by renowned authors of the time, such as Moses ben Mordecai Bassola, Isaac Akrish, and Abraham Farissol, among others. Additionally, various writings emerged concerning the Beta Israel and their interactions with the Jewish communities in the Mediterranean. Many Ethiopian Jews at this time would be cashed in by the local communities, joined synagogues, intermarried, etc. The legends of the conflicts involving the Beta Israel and the Ethiopian Empire gained fame and spread across the world.
During the mid-16th century, the Beta Israel was heavily persecuted, by the ruling elites in which the Emperor confined himself on the agriculturally richer part of their territory, as leading as well leading small scale raids) into their villages and forts, which devastated the community, with a gradual increase of forced conversions and burning of manuscripts and scrolls occurred during this time. The Emperor also looted and burnt all the possessions, in which we can see an increase of Christian influence in this time.