South Kivu (Swahili: Jimbo la Kivu Kusini; French: Sud-Kivu) is one of 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital is Bukavu. Located within the East African Rift's western branch Albertine Rift, it is bordered to the east by Lake Kivu, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania; to the west by Maniema; to the north by North Kivu; and the south by Tanganyika. The province covers an area of approximately 69,130 square kilometers and has an estimated population of 8,147,400 as of 2024.
The region has historically been inhabited by various Bantu-speaking ethnic groups, including the Bashi, Bafuliiru, Banyindu, Bazoba, Babembe, Babuyu, Balega, Babwari, Baholoholo, Banyanga, Bavira, Bakusu, Batembo, Barongeronge, and Baswaga, as well as Pygmy ethnic groups. During the colonial period, the borders of the Congo Free State were established by the 1885 Berlin Conference, placing all of Lake Kivu and both banks of the Ruzizi River within the Free State. The region's boundaries were later subject to disputes, including the Kivu frontier incident of 1909, which was resolved in 1910 when the eastern portion of Kivu was allocated to Uganda Protectorate and German East Africa. Kivu District was formally created in 1912 and later divided into Sud-Kivu and Nord-Kivu Districts in 1951. After a series of administrative reorganizations, South Kivu became a separate province in 1988, alongside North Kivu and Maniema.
Administratively, South Kivu is divided into eight territories: Fizi, Idjwi, Kabare, Kalehe, Mwenga, Shabunda, Uvira, and Walungu, which are further subdivided into sectors and chiefdoms. The province contains four officially recognized cities: Bukavu, Uvira, Baraka, and Kamituga. Its economy is primarily based on agriculture, livestock farming, trade, and services. Significant natural and cultural landmarks include the Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and Itombwe Nature Reserve, both designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites, as well as Idjwi Island, Lake Kivu beaches, and Kavumu Airport.
Since the First Congo War (1996–1997), South Kivu has experienced persistent armed conflict and instability, particularly during the Second Congo War (1998–2003). The province has been a battleground for various armed groups, including the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL), the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD), Mai-Mai local community-based militias as well as March M23 Movement (M23), RED-Tabara, Twirwaneho, Ngumino, and Android. Ongoing insecurity, fueled by competition over natural resources has led to widespread human rights abuses, displacement of civilians, and humanitarian crises.
Geography
South Kivu is situated in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, forming part of the African Great Lakes region. It shares borders with North Kivu to the north, Maniema to the west, and Tanganyika to the south. To the east, the province is bounded by Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania. The landscape is predominantly mountainous, with the Mitumba Mountain range covering a significant portion of the province. Mount Kahuzi, standing at 3,308 meters above sea level, is the highest peak in South Kivu. The province also encompasses the Albertine Rift Valley, which includes the Ruzizi Plain, as well as Lakes Kivu and Tanganyika. In contrast, the western part of the province, particularly Shabunda Territory, consists of low-lying regions extending from the Maniema plateau, sloping gently toward the Congo River basin.
Hydrology
The province is home to two major lakes: Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika. Lake Kivu, situated at an altitude of 1,470 meters, is one of the deepest lakes in Africa. However, its ichthyofaunal biodiversity remains comparatively constrained due to the pervasive presence of dissolved carbon dioxide and methane gas. In contrast, Lake Tanganyika, which reaches a depth of 773 meters, is rich in fish and supports fishing activities in the region. It is also the second deepest in the world after Russia's Lake Baikal. These two lakes are connected by the Ruzizi River, which runs along the province's eastern border. Other significant rivers include the Elila and Ulindi Rivers, with many originating from the eastern mountain ranges before draining westward into the Lualaba River. Most of the province's rivers belong to the Congo River Basin, although some flow directly into its lakes. Lake Kivu contains an estimated 45 billion cubic meters of dissolved methane gas in its deep waters, presenting both an energy resource and a potential environmental hazard.
The province hosts four hydroelectric power stations, such as Ruzizi I, Ruzizi II, Kyimbi (Bendera), and Mungombe, while the Magembe micro-power plant in Fizi Territory remains inoperative. South Kivu also has considerable petroleum reserves, with oil deposits identified along the western littoral of Lake Kivu, within its subaqueous substratum, and across the Ruzizi Plain and Lake Tanganyika. Ongoing exploratory endeavors are being undertaken in Katanga, particularly at the confluence of the Mutambala River in Baraka, alongside similar research in Karamba, near the Nemba River, where bituminous hydrocarbon residues containing an 80% carbon composition have been extracted since 2020. Peat deposits are similarly exploited in multiple locales, including Kakonda (Kabare Territory) and Nyangezi, Chiherano, and Kachandja (Walungu Territory).
The province is prone to seasonal flooding, particularly during the rainy season, which frequently disrupts infrastructure and settlements.
Relief and geology
South Kivu's topography varied, with the eastern region dominated by the Mitumba mountain range, which often rises above 3,000 meters in elevation. The central and western parts of the province are marked by high and low plateaus, respectively. The eastern highlands form part of the Albertine Rift, a geological depression that includes both Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika.
The province's geology is divided into three main groups: basement terrains, volcanic terrains, and cover terrains. The basement terrains, primarily found in the western and central parts of the province, date back to the Middle Carboniferous period. These areas, which make up more than 70% of the province, are rich in valuable minerals like cassiterite, gold, columbite-tantalite (coltan), and wolframite, which have been mined since the colonial era. Volcanic terrains near Bukavu are dominated by basaltic rocks and ancient lava flows, particularly in the National INERA-Mulungu region.In addition to its volcanic terrain, South Kivu contains extensive sedimentary basins, such as the Lake Kivu and Ruzizi Plain Basin, which have accumulated mineral-rich deposits over time. These include valuable resources such as gold, columbite-tantalite, diamonds and wolframite as well as tin, monazite, limestone, cassiterite, methane gas and thermal waters. The province's soil composition varies by region: Kabare, Idjwi, and Walungu territories have predominantly clayey soils, though these are increasingly degraded due to erosion and overpopulation, leading to frequent land disputes and a decline in livestock farming. While Idjwi still retains fertile agricultural land, population pressures have made arable land scarce. Kalehe Territory has rich clay soils, benefiting from its proximity to forests and containing small gold deposits. In contrast, the territories of Shabunda, Mwenga, and Fizi have sandy soils that support agriculture while also holding significant mineral wealth, including tin, gold, cassiterite, and coltan. Uvira Territory features sandy soils ideal for rice and cotton cultivation, while its high plateaus provide favorable conditions for livestock farming due to their mild climate.
Climate
South Kivu's mountainous eastern region, including Bukavu, experiences a temperate climate with mild temperatures. The dry season lasts from June to September, with an average annual temperature of 19 °C in Bukavu. Higher altitudes, such as the Minembwe, Mulenge, Kalonge, and Kahuzi-Biéga mountains, experience cooler temperatures. These areas support grassy mountain vegetation with distinct layers.
The central and western parts of the province, particularly Shabunda Territory and Mwenga Territory, have a tropical rainforest climate, characterized by dense equatorial forests and abundant rainfall throughout the year. The Ruzizi Plain, however, experiences a microclimate with a tropical climate and relatively low rainfall (approximately 1,000 mm per year). Kabare, Walungu, Kalehe, Idjwi, and Bukavu territories experience a distinct two-season cycle: a dry season lasting three months (June to September) and a rainy season lasting nine months. The dry season is marked by high temperatures and a scarcity of rainfall, particularly in marshy areas. However, deforestation, environmental degradation, and population growth are increasingly disrupting the rainfall patterns in these regions. Forested areas such as Fizi, Mwenga, and Shabunda, located near the equatorial forest, receive heavy rainfall year-round. Uvira, apart from its highlands, has also seen declining rainfall and rising temperatures due to population growth and environmental destruction.
The region's vegetation is characterized by a grassy savannah with thorns and Myrtillocactus geometrizans, most notably in the Kahuzi-Biéga National Park.
Administrative divisions
South Kivu is administratively structured into a decentralized system that balances governance between the central government, provincial authorities, and localized territorial entities. The province is hierarchically divided into several administrative subdivisions, including territories, cities, communes, sectors, and chiefdoms. Both the province and decentralized territorial entities (Entités Territoriales Décentralisées; ETDs) possess legal personality, allowing them to manage economic, human, financial, and technical resources autonomously.
Territories
The province is composed of eight territories, each governed by a Territorial Administrator, who is assisted by two Assistant Territorial Administrators. These officials, appointed by the Ministry of the Interior and Security, are responsible for implementing state policies and overseeing governance in remote or rural areas. The province's administration is further supervised by the provincial governor, who acts as the President's representative in South Kivu.
The territories in South Kivu include:
Cities
South Kivu has four officially recognized cities: Bukavu, Uvira, Baraka, and Kamituga. Each city functions as a decentralized administrative entity with legal status and is led by a mayor and a deputy mayor, both appointed by presidential decree, following recommendations from the Minister of the Interior and Security.
The process of granting city status began in 2009. On 9 June that year, the provincial governor submitted a proposal to the Provincial Assembly requesting the elevation of several agglomerations to the rank of ville (city) and commune (municipality). The Provincial Assembly approved this request through Decision No. 09/200/PLENIERE/ASPRO/SK of 7 October 2009. These proposals were partly enacted in subsequent legislation, notably Decree No. 012/14 of 18 February 2012, and later consolidated through Decree No. 13/029 of 13 June 2013, which, in its Article 1, elevated Kamituga, Shabunda, Uvira, and Baraka to the rank of cities. However, in July 2015, the Council of Ministers suspended the execution of these decrees. On 27 December 2018, President Joseph Kabila confirmed by presidential decree the status of Uvira, Baraka, and Kamituga as cities of South Kivu, joining the provincial capital, Bukavu. A 13 June 2019 decree later reinforced the administrative framework for these urban entities.
Chiefdoms and sectors
Traditional governance structures remain significant in the province, particularly through chiefdoms and sectors. These entities reflect historical systems of local rule, where authority is often hereditary and determined by ethnic customs before being formally integrated into the state governance framework. The head of a chiefdom holds the title of mwami (paramount customary chief), with governance responsibilities extending to groupements, which are led by customary chiefs (chefs de groupement). Groupements are further divided into localités (villages or localities), also governed by customary chiefs. The province includes 18 chiefdoms, five sectors, 185 groupements, and 2,428 localités.
Demographics
By 2024, South Kivu's population was estimated at 8,147,400, nearly double the 2007 figure of 4,451,663. Population density remains highly uneven, with densely populated highland regions contrasting with sparsely inhabited forested lowlands. In 2007, Kabare, Walungu, Idjwi, and Kalehe Territories, which together accounted for only 15% of the province's total area, contained 38.61% of its population, whereas the more extensive territories of Shabunda, Mwenga, and Fizi, covering 78.08% of the landmass, were home to just 38.12% of residents. Approximately 86.9% of South Kivu's population lived in rural areas at that time. Population concentrations are greatest in the mountainous northern regions, whereas the southern lowland and forest zones remain relatively underpopulated.
Ethnic composition
The population is ethnically and linguistically diverse, with most of the population belonging to Bantu-speaking groups. According to Congolese scholar Safanto Lukendo Bulongo, the province's inhabitants can broadly be categorized into two prominent socio-political families, the first of which consists of interlacustrine pastoral Bantu groups characterized by centralized political systems governed by hierarchical chieftaincies that control land and people. The second group includes non-centralized Bantu societies, organized into smaller, autonomous kinship-based groups. The province's main ethnic groups include the Bashi, Bafuliiru, Bavira, Babembe, Barega, as well as Banyindu, Babwari, Babuyu, Batembo, Bazoba, Bakwami, Basongora, Barongeronge, Baholoholo, Baswaga, Banyanga, and Bazimba, among others, alongside various Pygmy ethnic groups. These populations are often organized around notions of autochthony, which is a sense of indigeneity profoundly tied to ancestral land and lineage, while non-indigenous communities, such as the Banyamulenge (Tutsi) and Barundi (Hutu), have also long been present.
Ethno-geographical distribution varies by territory: the Bahavu, a clan of the Bashi, predominantly inhabit Kalehe Territory and Idjwi Territory. The Bashi also form the majority in Idjwi Territory, Kabare Territory and Walungu Territory; the Bafuliiru and Bavira in Uvira Territory, where the Barundi are also found, particularly in the Ruzizi Plain; the Babembe primarily occupy Fizi Territory, which also hosts the Banyamulenge pastoralists of Rwandan Tutsi origin settled in the Mulenge highlands; and the Barega mainly reside in Mwenga Territory and Shabunda Territory. The Bashi are the province's most dominant group, and for administrative and political purposes, South Kivu's communities are often categorized into two broad groups: the "large family", dominated by Bashi, and the "small family", which includes the Balega and various other minority groups.
Languages and health
The official language is French, used in administration, education, and formal communication, while the dominant national language is Swahili, which serves as a lingua franca across the province and facilitates interethnic communication. Numerous vernacular languages are also spoken at the local level:
Administratively, South Kivu's healthcare system is organized into 34 health zones (zones de santé), which are grouped into five health districts (districts sanitaires).
Migration
The province's geographical position, situated along international borders with Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania, has made it a natural destination for cross-border migration. The province is home to many immigrants and refugees who are fleeing regional conflicts or seeking economic opportunities. Internal migration is also widespread, driven by artisanal and industrial mining, especially in gold-rich regions, land shortages in densely populated highlands, insecurity stemming from ongoing armed conflicts, and rural-to-urban migration as people seek improved living standards. A data collection exercise conducted by the Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM) of the International Organization for Migration (IOM), in partnership with the Réseau d'Action pour le Développement et le Progrès Intégré (RADPI) and the Division Provinciale des Affaires Humanitaires (DIVAH) of South Kivu, from 1 to 31 July 2022, recorded 1,288,574 internally displaced persons (IDPs) across South Kivu. They were identified in 34 health zones and 5,260 villages. The assessment also reported 802,535 returnees, 31,004 IDPs living in spontaneous sites, 64% of IDPs being women and children, and 16% of the provincial population affected by displacement, with 82% coverage of the province. IDPs were largely concentrated in Kalehe, Kabare, Walungu, Uvira, and Fizi Territories, where some zones hosted more than 53,600 displaced people, while returnees were mainly found in Kalehe, Shabunda, and Fizi, reaching up to 71,500 per health zone.
History
Pre-colonial era and colonial era
The region was inhabited by various Bantu-speaking ethnic groups, including the Bamushi, Bafuliiru, Bahavu, Banyindu, Babembe, Bazoba, Babuyu, Balega, Babwari, Baholoholo, Banyanga, Bavira, Bakusu, Batembo, Barongeronge, and Baswaga, along with Pygmy communities. In the late 19th century, the Banyarwanda, whose ancestors had fled Rwanda after falling out with the ruling Nyiginya dynasty, settled in the Itombwe area. Around the same period, Barundi migrants, primarily of Bahutu origin, established communities in the Ruzizi Plain, initially settling between Luvungi and Kiliba before gradually expanding northward toward Kamanyola. Meanwhile, during the scramble for Africa, European explorers were primarily focused on locating the source of the Nile, a mystery that had long intrigued European geographers. Initially, the Ruzizi River was mistakenly believed to be the Nile's source, as it was thought to drain the waters of Lake Tanganyika toward the north. However, further expeditions later confirmed that the Ruzizi River was a tributary of Lake Tanganyika rather than its emissary. The territorial boundaries of what would later become South Kivu were first delineated during the Berlin Conference of 1885, where European powers formalized their claims over African territories. The northeastern boundary of the Congo Free State was established as "a straight line coming from the northern end of Lake Tanganyika and ending at a point located on the 30th east meridian and at 1° 20' south latitude; further north, the border is formed by the 30th meridian east". Under this arrangement, all of Lake Kivu and both banks of the Ruzizi River were incorporated into the Congo Free State. The name "Kivu" gained prominence after explorer David Livingstone encountered it during his travels to Uvira in 1867 and learned the term from local inhabitants.
On 3 September 1886, Administrator General Camille Janssen issued a decree establishing nine districts within the colony, including Stanley Falls District, each governed by a district commissioner. As a result of this administrative restructuring, a territory known as Ruzizi-Kivu was integrated into Stanley Falls District. On 15 July 1898, a new decree renamed Stanley Falls District as Orientale Province, with Stanleyville (now Kisangani) as its capital.
In June 1909, the region became the site of the Kivu Frontier Incident when John Methuen Coote, a British officer from the Uganda Protectorate, established fortified camps at Burungu and Rubona on Lake Kivu. British troops under Coote withdrew from Rubona on 29 June 1909, allowing Belgian forces to take control of the post. The dispute was later resolved in May 1910, when the colonial boundaries between the Belgian Congo, the Uganda Protectorate, and German East Africa (now Rwanda) were officially settled, with eastern Kivu allocated to Uganda and Rwanda. Kivu District was formally created on 28 March 1912, through a royal decree that restructured the Congo into 22 districts. The newly established Kivu District was subdivided into three sectors: Lake Edward (with Beni as its administrative center), Tanganyika (Uvira), and Rutshuru (Rutshuru). In 1923, during a visit to Bukavu, the Commissioner of Orientale Province received a request from the European settler community to transfer the district capital from Rutshuru to Bukavu, citing its central location, mild climate, and scenic setting on Lake Kivu as making it a more suitable administrative center. The transfer was approved in 1924, officially designating Bukavu as the headquarters of the Kivu District. From 1925 onward, the area experienced economic and infrastructural growth, marked by the arrival of Prince Eugène de Ligne and his wife from Usumbura (now Bujumbura), who established the Linéa Company on the Idjwi archipelago that same year. According to Colonel Xavier Diericx, significant progress was recorded in Kivu from 1927.
On 25 September 1933, the provinces of the Belgian Congo were reorganized, and the amount of autonomy of the former provinces was reduced. The provinces were renamed after their respective administrative capitals, and Orientale Province was split into Stanleyville Province and Costermansville Province. On 1 October 1947, Costermansville Province was renamed Kivu Province. Kivu Province initially consisted of the districts of Kivu and Maniema. On 1 January 1951, Kivu District was subdivided into North Kivu District, with Goma as its administrative center, and South Kivu District, whose capital remained Costermansville (renamed Bukavu after independence).
Post-independence
Following Congolese independence, the law of 27 April 1962 introduced a new territorial reorganization that transformed the former district structure into provincial administrations. Under this reform, South Kivu, North Kivu, and Maniema were established as separate provinces. A subsequent administrative reorganization in 1963 merged these entities into the newly created Central Kivu Province, which included the territories of Bukavu, Kabare, Kalehe, Goma, Fizi, Rutshuru, Shabunda, and Uvira.
As soon as independence was proclaimed on 30 June 1960, unrest broke out, and the country descended into a prolonged political instability known as the Congo Crisis. The principal catalysts were the mutiny of the Force Publique, the secession of Katanga, and the confrontation involving the government of Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, Belgium, and several other Western powers. After the Force Publique mutiny began in Thysville (now Mbanza-Ngungu) on 5 July 1960, disturbances spread to other parts of the country, including Goma on 8 July. These events ultimately led to the fragmentation of state authority and culminated in the assassination of Lumumba in January 1961. By the end of 1960, the country was divided among four competing political entities: the secessionist State of Katanga, the Autonomous State of South Kasai, the central government in Léopoldville, and the rival government established in Stanleyville under Antoine Gizenga, with each of these entities claiming legitimacy over the Congolese state.
During this period, a movement emerged among Kivu politicians to attempt, much as the colonial authorities had once done, to regroup peoples of common origin who had been divided among different administrative entities. It was believed that strengthening an organization based on what was now considered a "better understood" ethnic identity would promote political and economic development as well as cultural unity. The theory of ethnic and cultural unity led the government of Adrien Omari to divide South Kivu into three ethnic districts: Lake Kivu, Elila, and Lake Tanganyika. The Lake Kivu District grouped together the Shi and the Havu within Kabare Territory and Kalehe Territory, along with the city of Bukavu. The Elila District encompassed Bulega, composed of Mwenga Territory, Shabunda Territory, and Pangi Territory. The Lake Tanganyika District brought together the Vira, Fuliru, Bembe, Buyu, Tutsi, and Rundi peoples. As part of this reorganization, Walungu was incorporated into Kabare Territory, while Idjwi was attached to Kalehe Territory.
On 19 October 1960, political leaders from Ngweshe Chiefdom affiliated with the RECO party, who constituted a majority within the provincial administration, persuaded the government headed by Jean Miruho to divide Kabare Territory into the separate territories of Kabare and Walungu. The decision deepened political divisions between the Kabare Chiefdom and Ngweshe Chiefdom. At the same time, the Nyangezi groupement sought administrative separation from Ngweshe Chiefdom, while the Katana groupement pursued separation from Kabare Chiefdom. The administration headed by Malago, supported by Shi from Ngweshe Chiefdom, became involved in a territorial dispute with Mwenga Territory over proposals to annex the Luhwinja Chiefdom, Burhinyi Chiefdom, and Lwindi Chiefdom into Ngweshe Chiefdom. On 2 February 1964, Katana was officially recognized as a chiefdom during an investiture ceremony presided over by Albert Teuwen, acting Commissaire de district of Lake Kivu in Bukavu. Katana Cakirwa was installed as chief, with Kalibanya serving as deputy chief and Manegabe Bazirashe as secretary. The chiefdom remained in existence until 1967, when President Mobutu abolished all chiefdoms established after independence.
Between 1967 and 1986, much of the southern portion of present-day South Kivu was controlled by the Maquis of Fizi, a self-proclaimed socialist polity led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila. The Maquis de Fizi was the longest and best-organized armed opposition to the dictatorial government of Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire. It remained active until its defeat during the Moba Wars, after which the movement was dismantled.
South Kivu Province was established in 1988 through the enactment of Ordinance-Law No. 88-031 of 20 July 1988, which amended Ordinance-Law No. 82-006 of 25 February 1982 governing the territorial, political, and administrative organization of Zaire. The reform partitioned the former Kivu Province into the provinces of North Kivu, South Kivu, and Maniema, with Bukavu designated as the capital of South Kivu. The process leading to the partition was prepared and implemented under the administrations of Governors Charles Mwando Nsimba and Kilolo Musamba Lubemba.
Although the territorial reorganization was implemented under Mobutu's authority, central government control over Kivu had become increasingly limited during the 1980s. During this period, Mwando, who succeeded in persuading the remaining insurgents in Fizi Territory to align with the government, exercised considerable de facto authority within the province. His administration coincided with the growing influence of the ACOGENOKI (Association coopérative des groupements d'éleveurs du Nord-Kivu) in North Kivu and Kalehe Territory, as well as with the regional instability generated by the insurgencies of the National Resistance Army (NRA) in Uganda and the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), led respectively by Yoweri Museveni and John Garang. Between 1981 and 1983, eastern Zaire reportedly served as a logistical base for elements associated with these movements. Mwando's administration has also been linked to the sale of land within areas under ACOGENOKI's influence, a practice that reportedly contributed to mounting tensions that intensified following the restoration of multiparty politics after 20 April 1990.
According to several accounts, the 1988 partition of Kivu benefited from the political influence of Léon Kengo wa Dondo, Alphonse-Roger Kithima Bin Ramazani, and Cyprien Rwakabuba Shinga. Contemporary debates surrounding the territorial reorganization are reflected in a letter dated 9 January 1988 from the Goma branch of the Umoja mutual association to its president, Munyamakuba Mugusha, in Kinshasa. The correspondence proposed the creation of two administrative zones intended to encompass areas with significant Tutsi populations should Kalehe Territory, or part of it, be incorporated into North Kivu:"Here is precise information concerning the creation of a zone within the framework of the partition of North Kivu. If Kalehe or part of this zone is attached to North Kivu, it will then be necessary to consider and strive for the creation of two Tutsi zones, one whose component parts are currently little occupied or unoccupied, and the other already well known to us.
The first proposal concerns Zone I. This zone should consist of areas detached from the following zones: (1) the Rutshuru zone (the northwestern part of Mweso and Bulindi); (2) the Masisi zone (the northern part so as to include Bibwe and Mokoto); the Walikale zone (Ihula and Pinga); and the Lubero zone (the Kanyabayonga and Kayina area).
The second proposal concerns Zone II. This zone should include the parts detached from the Kalehe zone, from Masisi (the southern part and Ufamando), and from Walikale. This area, currently occupied by a heterogeneous and scattered population made up of Batembo, Bahunde, Banyanga, Bahavu, and some Hutu, is of interest. Like the first, it consists of plateaus and high-altitude mountains with a climate favorable to livestock breeding". After the territorial reorganization, the first governors appointed to the newly created provinces were Désiré Bonaventure Konde Vila-Ki-Kanda for North Kivu, Ndala Kasala for South Kivu, and Tshala Mwana for Maniema. During his official installation in Bukavu on 25 August 1988, Ndala Kasala declared that he intended to serve as a "development governor" and described the partition of Kivu as an experimental reform introduced by the Popular Movement of the Revolution (MPR) under Mobutu to advance the country's development. Later assessments, however, have generally viewed the reform less favorably. Newspaper coverage from Goma, Bukavu, Kindu (including L'hebdo Jua, Le Souverain, Clef, Trou de serrure, Le Cedac, and Les Coulisses), as well as Kinshasa (Graben, Umoja, La Référence Plus, Le Potentiel, La Conscience, and Le Soft), described persistent administrative shortcomings, widening disparities between Kinshasa and the newly established provincial capitals, limited governmental presence beyond urban centers, and declining security and socioeconomic conditions. Thus, progressively, Bukavu became the center of anti-Mobutism and resistance against the Rwandan occupation, while Goma was subjected to the total domination of the rebellion of the Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD). As for Maniema, it fell into "total abandonment" before being integrated into a new political and economic space created by the RCD and increasingly controlled by Rwanda.
Conflict and insecurity
First Congo War
During the First Congo War (1996–1997), South Kivu became one of the most severely impacted regions. The war was rooted in the aftermath of the 1994 Rwandan genocide, which saw the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), under Paul Kagame's leadership, depose President Juvénal Habyarimana's Hutu-led government and assume control of Rwanda. In the genocide's wake, nearly two million Rwandan Hutu refugees, including former members of the Rwandan Armed Forces (Forces armées rwandaises; FAR) and the Interahamwe militia, fled into eastern Zaire, particularly to North and South Kivu. Their arrival brought armed elements into the region, which the Zairean government, led by President Mobutu Sese Seko, was largely unable to contain or mitigate through either humanitarian or security measures. During this period, the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), the military wing of the RPF, launched incursions into eastern Zaire aimed at dismantling Hutu insurgent networks operating from within refugee camps. These operations, however, extended beyond combatants and resulted in widespread violence against Hutu civilians. Independent assessments, including a report by United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) consultant Robert Gersony, estimated that between 5,000 and 10,000 people were killed monthly in mid-1994 as a consequence of these military actions. Reports indicate that RPA units frequently used deceptive tactics, such as convening civilians for purported "peace and reconciliation" meetings, only to carry out mass executions. One such incident occurred on 11 April 1995, when approximately fifty RPA soldiers attacked the Birava camp in Kabare Territory with heavy weaponry, reportedly killing around thirty people and injuring an unknown number of others. Notably, neither the ex-FAR/Interahamwe nor the refugee population mounted a counterattack. Following the assault, survivors were relocated to the Chimanga and Kashusha camps.
By 1996, a coalition comprising the RPA, Ugandan military forces, and the Burundian Forces Armées Burundaises (FAB) began providing military and logistical support to Tutsi communities in eastern Zaire, notably the Banyamulenge. Legal and political scholar Filip Reyntjens describes the First Congo War as the intersection of two overlapping agendas: on one hand, a legitimate defense movement by Congolese Tutsi populations fearing retaliation, and on the other, the strategic use of this rebellion by the Rwandan government to secure political and military influence within Zaire. In April 1996, Banyamulenge armed units originating from Burundi reportedly killed between eight and ten Burundian and Rwandan refugees at the Runingu camp. The assailants subsequently advanced toward the Hauts Plateaux and Moyens Plateaux. On 12 September 1996, Banyamulenge forces killed nine civilians in the villages of Kanyura and Makutano, located in the Itombwe sector of Mwenga Territory. Among the victims were the chef de poste d'encadrement from the Rega ethnic group, his associates, and the chief of the Basimunyaka-Sud groupement, an ethnic Bembe from Fizi Territory, along with two members of his family. The massacre was perceived by many in the Bembe community as the beginning of an all-out assault against them.
Uvira Territory
Additional violence erupted on 6 October 1996 in Kidoti, where Banyamulenge forces killed more than fifty civilians. Victims either died from shrapnel wounds or were executed, with some reportedly forced to dig their own mass graves. On the same day, in Lemera, Banyamulenge armed units carried out a massacre at the Lemera Hospital, killing 37 individuals, including two medical personnel, civilians, and soldiers of the Zairean Armed Forces (Forces Armées Zaïroises; FAZ) who were receiving treatment. The hospital was looted before the attackers withdrew.