Machu Picchu is a 15th-century Inca citadel located in the Eastern Cordillera of southern Peru on a mountain ridge at 2,430 meters (7,970 ft). It is situated in the Machupicchu District of Urubamba Province about 80 kilometers (50 miles) northwest of Cusco, above the Sacred Valley and along the Urubamba River, which forms a deep canyon with a subtropical mountain climate.
Often referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas", Machu Picchu is one of the most iconic symbols of the Inca civilization and a major archaeological site in the Americas. Estimated to be built around 1450, it is believed to have served as an estate for the Inca emperor Pachacuti, though no contemporary written records exist to confirm this. The site was abandoned roughly a century later, likely during the Spanish conquest. Modern radiocarbon dating places its occupation between c. 1420 and 1530.
Machu Picchu was constructed in the classical Inca style, featuring finely crafted dry-stone walls. Notable structures include the Temple of the Sun, the Temple of the Three Windows, and the Intihuatana ritual stone. Although the site was known locally and reached in the early 20th century by the Peruvian explorer Agustín Lizárraga, it was brought to international attention in 1911 by the American historian Hiram Bingham III. The original Inca name of the site may have been Huayna Picchu, after the mountain on which part of the complex stands.
Designated a National Historic Sanctuary by Peru in 1981 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983, Machu Picchu was also named one of the New Seven Wonders of the World in 2007. As of 2025, the site receives over 1.5 million visitors annually, making it Peru's most visited international tourist destination.
Etymology
The site is on a narrow saddle between two mountain peaks, Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu. In the Quechua language, machu means 'old' or 'old person' and wayna (spelled huayna in standard Spanish orthography) means 'young', while pikchu refers to a 'summit', 'peak', or 'pyramid'. Thus, the name of the site is often translated as 'old mountain' or 'old peak'.
Although the original name given to the settlement by its builders is not definitively known, a 2021 study in Ñawpa Pacha: Journal of the Institute of Andean Studies suggests that the site was likely called "Huayna Picchu", after the smaller peak nearby, or simply "Picchu". According to the research, the association of the name Machu Picchu with the ruins likely began with American explorer Hiram Bingham's 1911 publications, a conclusion supported by Bingham's field notes, early maps, and historical documents.
History
Machu Picchu’s early chronology continues to be a matter of scholarly debate. Earlier chronological models, based mainly on John H. Rowe's historical reconstruction of the reign of Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, have placed the beginning of construction around 1450, 10 years after his takeover. However, a 2021 study led by Richard L. Burger, professor of anthropology at Yale University), reporting 26 AMS radiocarbon measurements from human remains concluded that Machu Picchu was occupied from around 1420 to 1530. Similar conclusions supporting an earlier 15th-century chronology have been reported by other radiocarbon studies. Construction appears to date from two Sapa Incas, Pachacutec Inca Yupanqui (1438–1471) and Túpac Inca Yupanqui (1472–1493).
A consensus among archaeologists is that Pachacutec ordered the construction of the royal estate after his conquest of the middle and lower Urubamba, this has been interpreted as part of a broader program of establishing royal estates along the Urubamba River. Machu Picchu’s palace complex is thought to have functioned as a seasonal royal retreat. Although Machu Picchu is considered to be a royal estate, it would not have been passed down in the line of succession. Rather, it was used for 80 years before being abandoned, seemingly because of the Spanish conquests in other parts of the Inca Empire. It is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travelers before the Spanish conquistadors even arrived in the area.
Before the arrival of the Spanish
Daily life in Machu Picchu
During its use as an estate, it is estimated that about 750 people lived there, with most serving as support staff (yanaconas) who lived there permanently. Though the estate belonged to Pachacutec, religious specialists and temporary specialized workers (mayocs) lived there as well, most likely for the ruler's well-being and enjoyment. During winter, which was usually the harsher season, staffing was reduced to a few hundred servants, and a few religious specialists focused on maintenance alone.
Studies of skeletal remains found at Machu Picchu show that most people who lived there were immigrants from diverse backgrounds. Genome-wide analyses indicate that the retainer community (yanacona and former aclla) was genetically diverse, including Andean, coastal, Ecuadorian, and Amazonian ancestries, with individuals of different ancestries living, reproducing, and being buried together. They lacked the chemical markers and osteological markers they would have if they had been living there their entire lives. Instead, research into skeletal remains has found bone damage from various species of water parasites indigenous to different areas of Peru. There were also varying osteological stressors and varying chemical densities, suggesting varying long-term diets characteristic of specific regions that were spaced apart. These diets are composed of varying levels of maize, potatoes, grains, legumes, and fish, but the last-known short-term diet for these people was overall composed of less fish and more corn. This suggests that several of the immigrants were from more coastal areas and moved to Machu Picchu, where corn was a larger portion of food intake. Most skeletal remains found at the site had lower levels of arthritis and bone fractures than those found in most sites of the Inca Empire. Incan individuals who had arthritis and bone fractures were typically those who performed heavy physical labor (such as the Mit'a) or served in the Inca military.
Animals are also suspected to have been brought to Machu Picchu, as there were several bones found that were not native to the area. Most animal bones found were from llamas and alpacas. These animals naturally live at altitudes of 4,000 meters (13,000 ft) rather than the 2,400 meters (7,900 ft) elevation of Machu Picchu. Most likely, these animals were brought in from the Puna region for meat consumption and for their pelts. Guinea pigs were also found at the site in special tomb caves, suggesting that they were at least used for funerary rituals, as it was common throughout the Inca Empire to use them for sacrifices and meat. Six dogs were also recovered from the site. Due to their placements among the human remains, it is believed that they served as companions of the dead.
Agricultural activity
Much of the farming carried out at Machu Picchu was done on its andenes (artificial terraces). These terraces were a work of considerable engineering, built to ensure drainage and soil fertility while also protecting the mountain itself from erosion and landslides. However, the terraces were not perfect, as studies of the land show that there were landslides that happened during the construction of Machu Picchu. Still visible are places where the terraces were shifted by landslides and then stabilized by the Inca as they continued to build around the area. The terraces also facilitated the management of water for agriculture, increasing crop yields, with maize likely being the main crop due to its ceremonial importance, alongside possible cultivation of potatoes.
However, terrace farming area makes up only about 4.9 ha (12 acres) of land, and a study of the soil around the terraces showed that what was grown there was mostly corn and potatoes, which was not enough to support more than 750 people living at Machu Picchu. This explains why studies done on the food that the Inca ate at Machu Picchu suggest it was imported from the surrounding valleys and farther afield.
It is estimated that the area around the site has received more than 1,800 mm (71 in) of rain per year since AD 1450, which was more than that needed to support crop growth. Because of this ample rainfall, routine irrigation was generally unnecessary for the terraces. They received so much rain that they were built by Incan engineers specifically to allow for drainage of excess water. Excavation and soil analyses done by Kenneth Wright in the 1990s showed that the terraces were built in layers, with a bottom layer of larger stones covered by loose gravel. On top of the gravel was a layer of mixed sand and gravel packed together, with rich topsoil covering it. Research showed that the topsoil was probably moved from the valley floor to the terraces because it was much better than the soil higher up the mountain.
Rituals and offerings
In Inca religion, human sacrifice, most prominently the capacocha ritual involving carefully selected, unblemished children, was practised at major huacas on exceptional occasions to secure supernatural favour and to consolidate political and religious authority. At Machu Picchu, however, there is little direct evidence for human sacrifice; the archaeological record instead indicates that animal offerings, particularly camelids, were common, with the Temple of the Condor and adjacent caves interpreted as sites for ritual sacrifice. Numerous camelid remains recovered at the site have been associated with funerary rituals and other ceremonial offerings. Excavations documented approximately 104 caves and rock shelters used as burial chambers around Machu Picchu, containing the remains of about 174 individuals, interpreted as largely belonging to yanaconas of diverse ethnic origins rather than the Inca elite.
Encounters with Westerners
Spanish conquest
Machu Picchu is believed to have been abandoned in the mid-16th century, around the time of the Spanish conquest, likely due to the collapse of Inca rule and disease following European contact. In the late 16th century, Spaniards who had gained control of the area documented that indigenous individuals mentioned returning to "Huayna Picchu", the name that is believed to be originally given to the site by locals. The Spanish conquistador Baltasar de Ocampo had notes of a visit during the end of the 16th century to a mountain fortress called Pitcos with sumptuous and majestic buildings, erected with great skill and art, all the lintels of the doors, as well the principal as the ordinary ones, being of marble and elaborately carved.
Over the centuries, the surrounding jungle overgrew the site, and few outside the immediate area knew of its existence. The site may have been rediscovered and exploited in the late 19th century by the German engineer Augusto Berns. Some suggest the German engineer J. M. von Hassel arrived earlier, though there's no solid evidence. Maps reference Machu Picchu as early as 1874, and a 1904 atlas labeled it as Huayna Picchu.
Search for the Neo-Inca capital
In 1902, Peruvian explorer Agustín Lizárraga led an expedition to the area now known as Machu Picchu. After several hours of clearing undergrowth, they reached the stone structures of the citadel. During that visit, Lizárraga marked his surname and the year, "A. Lizárraga 1902", in charcoal on the central window of the Temple of the Three Windows. In 1911, American historian and explorer Hiram Bingham traveled the region looking for the lost capital of the Neo-Inca state (later established to be Vilcabamba), established by Manco Inca after the Spanish conquest. They were led to Machu Picchu by a villager, Melchor Arteaga. Bingham found the surname of Lizárraga and the 1902 date on the temple. Initially disappointed, he documented in his pocket field journal: "Agustín Lizárraga is discoverer of Machu Picchu and lives at San Miguel Bridge just before passing." However, while Bingham initially acknowledged Lizárraga as the discoverer in his early writings and speeches, including Inca Land (1922), he gradually downplayed Lizárraga's role until, in his final version of the story, Lost City of the Incas (1952), Bingham claimed to have found the site himself. In a 1922 letter to the head of the school he had once attended in Honolulu, Bingham wrote:
I suppose that in the same sense of the word as it is used in the expression "Columbus discovered America" it is fair to say that I discovered Machu Picchu. The Norsemen and the French fishermen undoubtedly visited North America long before Columbus crossed the Atlantic. On the other hand it was Columbus who made America known to the civilized world. In the same sense of the word I "discovered" Machu Picchu—in that before my visit and report on it it was not known to the geographical and historical societies in Peru, nor to the Peruvian government.
Though Bingham was not the first to visit the ruins, he was considered the scientific discoverer who brought Machu Picchu to international attention. Bingham organized another expedition in 1912 to undertake major clearing and excavation.
1911 American Expedition
Bingham was a lecturer at Yale University, although not a trained archaeologist. In 1909, returning from the Pan-American Scientific Congress in Santiago, he travelled through Peru. He was invited to explore the Inca ruins at Choqquequirau in the Apurímac Valley. He organized the 1911 Yale Peruvian Expedition in part to search for the Inca capital, which was thought to be the city of Vitcos, reportedly located near the town of Torontoy. He consulted Carlos Romero, one of the chief historians in Lima, who showed him helpful references and Father Antonio de la Calancha's Corónica moralizada del Orden de San Agustín en el Perú (Chronicle of the Augustinians), first published in 1631. In particular, Ramos thought Vitcos was "near a great white rock over a spring of fresh water." Back in Cusco again, Bingham asked planters about the places mentioned by Calancha, particularly along the Urubamba River. According to Bingham, "one old prospector said there were interesting ruins at Machu Picchu," though his statements "were given no importance by the leading citizens." Only later did Bingham learn that Charles Wiener had also heard of the ruins at Huayna Picchu and Machu Picchu, but was unable to reach them.
Armed with this information, Bingham's expedition went down the Urubamba River. En route, Bingham asked local people to show them Inca ruins, especially any place described as having a white rock over a spring.
At Mandor Pampa, Bingham asked farmer and innkeeper Melchor Arteaga if he knew of any nearby ruins. Arteaga said he knew of excellent ruins on the top of Huayna Picchu. The next day, 24 July, Arteaga led Bingham and Sergeant Carrasco across the river on a log bridge and up to the Machu Picchu site. At the top of the mountain, they came across a small hut occupied by a couple of Quechua people, Richarte and Alvarez, who were farming some of the original Machu Picchu agricultural terraces that they had cleared four years earlier. Richarte's 11-year-old son, Pablito, led Bingham along the ridge to the main ruins.
The ruins were mostly covered with vegetation except for the cleared agricultural terraces and clearings used by the farmers as vegetable gardens. Because of the vegetation, Bingham was not able to observe the full extent of the site. He took preliminary notes, measurements, and photographs, noting the fine quality of the Inca stonework of several principal buildings. Bingham was unsure about the original purpose of the ruins, but concluded there was no indication that it matched the description of Vitcos.
The expedition continued down the Urubamba and up the Vilcabamba Rivers, examining all the ruins they could find. Guided by locals, Bingham rediscovered and correctly identified the site of the old Inca capital, Vitcos (then called Rosaspata), and the nearby temple of Chuquipalta. He then crossed a pass and into the Pampaconas Valley where he found more ruins heavily buried in the jungle undergrowth at Espíritu Pampa, which he named "Trombone Pampa". As was the case with Machu Picchu, the site was so heavily overgrown that Bingham could only note a few of the buildings. In 1964, Gene Savoy further explored the ruins at Espiritu Pampa and revealed the full extent of the site, identifying it as Vilcabamba Viejo, where the Incas fled after the Spanish drove them from Vitcos.
Excavations and controversy (1912–1915)
Bingham returned to Machu Picchu in 1912 under the sponsorship of Yale University and the National Geographic Society. The expedition conducted site clearing and archaeological work between July and November of that year, under the supervision of George Eaton and Ellwood Erdis. These efforts included burnings, vegetation removal, mapping, and excavations, many of which were carried out with the assistance of local labor organized in part by Ángel Lizárraga, younger brother of Agustín Lizárraga. The work was supported logistically by regional authorities, including the Prefect of Cusco. Excavations resumed in 1914 and 1915 during a subsequent expedition. Although Bingham proposed several hypotheses regarding the purpose and significance of the site, none have been substantiated by later research. During the expeditions, numerous artifacts were recovered and transported to Yale University. Among these was a set of 15th-century ceremonial Incan knives made from bismuth bronze, which are the earliest known artifacts to contain this alloy.
Although local institutions initially welcomed the exploration, they soon accused Bingham of legal and cultural malpractice. Rumors arose that the team was stealing artifacts and smuggling them out of Peru through Bolivia. In fact, Bingham removed many artifacts, but openly and legally; they were deposited in the Yale University Museum. Bingham was abiding by the 1852 Civil Code of Peru; the code stated that "archaeological finds generally belonged to the discoverer, except when they had been discovered on private land". Local press perpetuated the accusations, claiming that the excavation harmed the site and deprived local archaeologists of knowledge about their own history. Landowners began to demand rent from the excavators. By the time Bingham and his team left Machu Picchu, locals had formed coalitions to defend their ownership of Machu Picchu and its cultural remains, while Bingham claimed the artifacts ought to be studied by experts in American institutions.
Dispute over cultural artifacts
In 1912, 1914, and 1915, Bingham removed thousands of artifacts from Machu Picchu—ceramic vessels, silver statues, jewelry, and human bones—and took them to Yale University for further study, supposedly for 18 months. Yale instead kept the artifacts until 2012, arguing that Peru lacked the infrastructure and systems to care for them. Eliane Karp, an anthropologist and wife of former Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo, accused Yale of profiting from Peru's cultural heritage. Many of the articles were exhibited at Yale's Peabody Museum.
In 2006, Yale returned some pieces but retained more than 250 "museum-quality" pieces, claiming this was supported by federal case law of Peruvian antiquities. In 2007, the Peruvian government and Yale had agreed on a joint traveling exhibition and construction of a new museum and research center in Cusco advised by Yale. Yale acknowledged Peru's title to all the objects, but would share rights with Peru in the research collection, part of which would remain at Yale for continuing study. In November 2010, Yale agreed to return the disputed artifacts. The third and final batch of artifacts was delivered in November 2012. The artifacts are permanently exhibited at the Machu Picchu Museum–Casa Concha, located near Cusco's colonial center and owned by the National University of San Antonio Abad del Cusco.
Later archaeological research and scientific studies
After Bingham's expeditions, state and institutional projects carried out mainly restoration and limited excavations between 1929 and 1971. From the 1970s to the 1990s, a series of targeted excavations and conservation programs recovered mainly Inca artifacts (ceramics, stone tools, and metal objects). They documented disturbed or reworked layers within the site. Between 2014 and 2017, the Archaeological and Interdisciplinary Research Program in the Historic Sanctuary of Machupicchu (PIAISHM) carried out systematic excavations, pollen studies, and architectural analyses that clarified construction phases, recorded offerings, and refined interpretations of its function and population. Radiocarbon dating analyses have refined the site's chronology, indicating that Machu Picchu’s main construction and use fall in the early to mid 15th century, slightly earlier than some traditional documentary chronologies suggest.
Current state
Preservation
In 1981, Peru declared an area of 325.92 square kilometers (125.84 sq mi) surrounding Machu Picchu a "Historic Sanctuary". In addition to the ruins, the sanctuary includes a large portion of the adjoining region, rich with the flora and fauna of the Peruvian Yungas and Central Andean wet puna ecoregions.
Beyond its historical significance, Machu Picchu houses a diverse range of species. Among them are the Andean fox, puma, vizcacha, spectacled bear, and white-tailed deer. The sanctuary is also a habitat for more than 420 bird species, such as the cock-of-the-rock and the Andean condor. The area hosts over 550 tree species across 74 families, including ferns, gymnosperms, and palms.
In 1983, UNESCO designated Machu Picchu a World Heritage Site, describing it as "a masterpiece of art, urbanism, architecture and engineering" and "a unique testimony" of the Inca civilization, with the inscription covering both the archaeological complex and its surrounding landscape.
The modern town of Machu Picchu
Along the Urubamba river, below the ruins, surrounding the train line "street", is the town of Machu Picchu, also known as Aguas Calientes (hot springs), with a post office, a train station, hotels, and other services for the many tourists. The station, called Puente Ruinas (bridge to the ruins), is the end of the line for the tren de turismo (tourist train), which arrives every morning from Cusco and returns every afternoon. There is also a luxury hotel on the mountain, near the ruins.
Machu Picchu is officially twinned with Haworth, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom, as well as Fukushima and Ōtama, Japan, Petra, Jordan, Medley, United States, and Tinum, Mexico.
Tourist activity
Machu Picchu is both a cultural and natural UNESCO World Heritage Site. Since Hiram Bingham's expedition, growing numbers of tourists have visited the site each year, with numbers exceeding 1.5 million in 2025. As Peru's most visited tourist attraction and a major revenue generator, it is continually exposed to economic and commercial forces. In the late 1990s, the Peruvian government granted concessions to allow the construction of a cable car and a luxury hotel, including a tourist complex with boutiques and restaurants and a bridge to the site. These plans faced widespread protests, with critics arguing that the government had failed to conduct a proper environmental impact survey, as requested by the National Institute of Natural Resources, which warned of potential harm to the ecosystem. In 2018, plans were restarted to construct a cable car again to encourage Peruvians to visit Machu Picchu and boost domestic tourism. A no-fly zone exists above the area. UNESCO considered including Machu Picchu on its List of World Heritage in Danger in 2017 due to overcrowding concerns, but ultimately decided against it.
Efforts to manage the impact of tourism have included various measures over the years. In the 1980s, a rock from Machu Picchu's central plaza was moved to create a helicopter landing zone, a practice that was later stopped. In 2006, the company Helicusco sought approval for tourist flights over the site, but the license was soon rescinded. In January 2010, severe flooding caused by El Niño trapped over 4,000 people and disrupted access to Machu Picchu, leading to its temporary closure. The site reopened on April 1, 2010. To further address tourism's impact, stricter entrance regulations were introduced in July 2011, limiting the number of daily visitors to 2,500 per day to the citadel. In 2018, a new entrance system was added to manage tourism better and reduce site degradation. In 2024, the daily visitor limit was officially increased to 4,500, with up to 5,600 permitted during peak season.
In May 2012, UNESCO urged additional protection measures for the site's buffer zone, especially due to the rapid growth in the nearby town of Aguas Calientes. Tourist deaths at Machu Picchu from altitude sickness, floods, and accidents have led to criticism of UNESCO for allowing visits despite the site's high safety risks. The trend of nude tourism in 2014 also led to increased surveillance by Peru's Ministry of Culture to end the practice.
In recognition of efforts to manage and protect the site, Fernando Astete, who served as Chief of the National Archaeological Park of Machu Picchu from 1994 to 2019, was honored with the "Personalidad Meritoria de la Cultura" award by the Ministry of Culture of Peru in January 2020. This award acknowledged his extensive contributions to the preservation, management, and study of Machu Picchu.
Machu Picchu was closed to visitors in March 2020 because of the COVID-19 pandemic. In October 2020, the site was briefly opened to allow one stranded Japanese tourist to visit. It reopened in November 2020 after an eight-month shutdown, the initial reopening limited admissions to 675 visitors per day under strict biosafety protocols. During the 2022–2023 Peruvian protests, routes to Machu Picchu were blocked, trapping thousands of tourists and leading to a government airlift of the stranded visitors. Due to these disruptions, the Ministry of Culture closed the site indefinitely on 22 January 2023. It was reopened on 15 February 2023.
Geography
Machu Picchu lies in the Southern Hemisphere, 13.111 degrees south of the equator. It is 80 kilometers (50 miles) northwest of Cusco, on the crest of the mountain Machu Picchu, located about 2,430 meters (7,970 feet) above mean sea level, over 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) lower than Cusco, which has an elevation of 3,400 meters (11,200 ft). As such, it had a milder climate than the Inca capital. It is one of the most important archaeological sites in South America, one of the most visited tourist attractions in Latin America, and the most visited in Peru.
Machu Picchu is situated above a bow of the Urubamba River, which surrounds the site on three sides, where cliffs drop vertically for 450 meters (1,480 ft) to the river at their base. The area is subject to morning mists rising from the river. Hermann Buse suggested that the site’s location, chosen for its sacred geographic features, was intentionally kept secret and served as an imperial refuge for Inca elites. Archaeological surveys have identified multiple possible pre-Hispanic bridges across the Urubamba River, which ranged from hanging rope bridges to simple log and rope structures, and several abutments and road segments near the site indicate bridge locations. However, much of the evidence has been affected by river floods.