Jakarta, officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta, is the capital and largest city of Indonesia, with administrative status equivalent to a province. It lies on the northwestern coast of Java, borders the provinces of West Java and Banten, and faces the Java Sea to the north. Jakarta itself covers about 662 square kilometres (256 square miles), but the wider Jakarta metropolitan area—locally known as Jabodetabek—is among the largest urban agglomerations in the world by area. By population, Greater Jakarta is the most populous urban area in the world with a population of over 40 million. Jakarta is Indonesia's political, economic, and cultural centre and contains many national institutions, corporate headquarters, and the secretariat of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
The area that is now Jakarta has been inhabited since at least the early centuries of the Common Era and was long associated with Sunda Kelapa, the port of the Sunda Kingdom. In 1527, the settlement was renamed Jayakarta after being captured by forces of the Demak Sultanate. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) seized the city in 1619 and rebuilt it as Batavia, which served as the centre of VOC power and subsequently of Dutch colonial rule in the Indonesian archipelago for more than three centuries. After the Japanese occupation during the Second World War and Indonesia's declaration of independence in 1945, the city took the name Jakarta and became the capital of the new republic.
The Globalization and World Cities Research Network classifies Jakarta as an alpha world city. It is Indonesia's main financial and commercial centre and one of Southeast Asia's largest urban economies. Its economy is concentrated in finance, trade, business services, media, and international diplomacy. Rapid urbanisation since the mid-20th century expanded Jakarta into a metropolitan region and drew migrants from across Indonesia.
Jakarta has no ethnic majority. Its population includes large communities of Javanese, Betawi, Sundanese, Chinese Indonesians, and migrants from many other parts of Indonesia. Indonesian is the official language and the main language of public life, while Betawi culture grew out of the mixing of local, Chinese, Indian, Arab, and European influences during the colonial period. Jakarta has persistent urban problems, including traffic congestion, air pollution, flooding, and land subsidence, which helped prompt the national government's decision to relocate Indonesia's future capital to Nusantara in East Kalimantan.
Etymology
The area now known as Jakarta has had several names. During the period of the Sunda Kingdom, its harbour was known as Kalapa or Sunda Kalapa, one of the kingdom's principal ports on the north coast of western Java. Early Portuguese accounts referred to the harbour as Calapa.
The name Jayakarta is traditionally traced to the conquest of Kalapa by forces under Fatahillah of the Demak Sultanate in 1527, although the reported renaming is not confirmed by surviving historical records. The name has been glossed as "victory" or "victorious deed"; early European sources recorded related forms including Iacarta, Xacatra, and Jacatra.
After taking control of Jayakarta in 1619, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) rebuilt the settlement as Batavia, a name referring to the Batavi, whom the Dutch regarded as their ancestors. Batavia remained in use during the Dutch colonial period until 1942, when the Japanese occupation authorities renamed the city Japanese: ジャカルタ特別市, romanized: Jakaruta Tokubetsu-shi, lit. 'Jakarta Special Municipality'. After Indonesian independence, Jakarta became the city's formal name.
History
Early settlements and Sunda Kelapa
Archaeological evidence from the wider north coast of western Java predates the written record of the Jakarta area. The Buni culture, a prehistoric pottery tradition in coastal northern and western Java, is generally dated from about 400 BC to 100 AD and may have survived until the 5th century. Written evidence from the Jakarta area appears in the mid-5th-century Tugu inscription, found in present-day North Jakarta. The inscription records river works ordered by King Purnawarman of Tarumanagara and mentions the Candrabhaga and Gomati rivers, although several details of the works and their setting remain uncertain.
After Tarumanagara, western Java came under the Sunda Kingdom. The Chinese work Chu-fan-chi referred to Sin-t'o, identified as western Java, and noted its harbour and pepper. By the early 16th century, Sunda Kelapa was the main commercial port of the Sunda Kingdom. The Suma Oriental described Calapa as the most important of Sunda's ports, with trade arriving from Sumatra, Java, and other places.
Portuguese interest in Java followed the conquest of Malacca. In 1513, Portuguese authorities in Malacca sent a fleet to Java to obtain spices. Their involvement at Sunda Kelapa became more direct in 1522, when the Sunda Kingdom concluded an agreement with Portugal. The treaty allowed the Portuguese to build a fortress at Kalapa and gave Sunda support against Islamic powers expanding along Java's north coast. In 1527, Demak-backed forces under Fatahillah captured Sunda Kelapa. The port thereafter became known as Jayakarta and later came under the Banten Sultanate, which developed into a major coastal power in western Java.
Batavia under Dutch rule
By the early 17th century, Jayakarta was ruled by Prince Jayawikarta under the wider authority of the Banten Sultanate, while the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the English competed for influence there. Amid this conflict, Dutch forces under Jan Pieterszoon Coen returned with reinforcements in May 1619, overran Jayakarta, and destroyed the city. The VOC then rebuilt the settlement as a fortified city named Batavia, which became the company's headquarters in Asia.
Batavia was laid out as a walled canal city on low-lying coastal land at the mouth of the Ciliwung river. Its canals served transport, drainage, and water-management functions, but poor flow, sedimentation, and coastal silting made flooding and sanitation recurring problems. By the 18th century, the old town had gained a reputation for disease and decay.
Even so, Batavia remained an important commercial and administrative centre. Chinese residents played a large role in its commerce, agriculture, crafts, and construction, and lived both inside and outside the walled city. In 1740, conflict between VOC authorities and Batavia's Chinese community culminated in a massacre. Survivors were barred from living inside the city walls, and in 1741, the VOC designated a Chinese settlement at Diestpoort, south of Batavia, in the area later known as Glodok.
In the 19th century, health concerns and the decline of the old town helped shift Batavia's urban development southward. Weltevreden, today's Central Jakarta, became an inland district of government buildings, spacious houses, and gardens, while the lower old town retained commercial functions, including the Chinese quarter. Later expansion included Menteng and the incorporation of Meester Cornelis. Dutch colonial rule ended in March 1942, when Japanese forces captured Batavia during the Second World War and renamed the city Jakarta.
Jakarta in independent Indonesia
Indonesia's independence was proclaimed in Jakarta on 17 August 1945. During the Indonesian National Revolution, the city's local government was contested between Indonesian republican authority and returning Allied and Dutch power. Republican leaders moved the temporary capital to Yogyakarta in early 1946 after British troops entered Jakarta. The Netherlands transferred sovereignty to the United States of Indonesia in 1949, whose constitution placed the federal government in the capital, Jakarta. In 1950, the federal state was replaced by the unitary Republic of Indonesia under the Provisional Constitution, which placed the national government in Jakarta.
Under Sukarno, the government built monuments, sports facilities, and ceremonial roads in Jakarta as part of preparations for the 1962 Asian Games and his nation-building programme. These projects included the National Monument, Hotel Indonesia, Sarinah, the Senayan sports complex, and the Thamrin–Sudirman axis. In 1964, Jakarta was legally designated a Special Capital Region (Daerah Khusus Ibukota, DKI) with administrative status equivalent to a province.
The political crisis of 1965–66 ended Sukarno's presidency and brought General Suharto's New Order to power. During the governorship of Ali Sadikin (1966–77), Jakarta pursued urban modernisation while also expanding the kampung improvement program, which upgraded basic infrastructure and services in many dense settlements. These policies treated kampungs as part of the city, but later approaches increasingly shifted from in-situ upgrading toward redevelopment and resettlement. Later New Order policies encouraged investment, high-rise construction, and large-scale private development, especially along major corridors and in the expanding metropolitan region.
The Asian financial crisis in 1997–98 disrupted this growth and contributed to political unrest, including the riots of May 1998 that caused Suharto's resignation. In the Reformasi era, decentralisation and electoral reforms changed Jakarta's governance, including the introduction of direct gubernatorial elections in 2007. The Indonesian government has since begun the legal process of relocating the national capital to Nusantara. Under a 2022 law, Jakarta remains the national capital until a presidential decree formalises the transfer. A 2024 law gives Jakarta a new special regional framework after the capital is moved, with an emphasis on its role as an economic centre and global city.
Geography
Jakarta covers about 662 square kilometres (256 sq mi) of land and 6,977 square kilometres (2,694 sq mi) of sea area. Its urban area extends beyond the provincial boundary into the Jakarta metropolitan area, or Jabodetabek, which includes neighbouring cities and regencies in West Java and Banten. Daily commuting links Jakarta with surrounding municipalities, especially Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi.
The city lies on the northwestern coast of Java at the mouth of the Ciliwung River, facing Jakarta Bay, an inlet of the Java Sea. Administratively, Jakarta includes five mainland municipalities and the Thousand Islands regency to the north of the mainland city. Except for some hilly areas in the south, Jakarta spreads across low, flat terrain. Much of the city lies on an alluvial plain crossed by rivers and canals, with extended areas ranging from below sea level to about 50 metres (160 feet) above sea level.
Jakarta developed on low coastal land crossed by rivers and canals. Thirteen rivers flow through the city from the south toward Jakarta Bay, including the Ciliwung, Angke, Sunter, and Grogol rivers. Historically, the area included extensive swamps, and seasonal flooding remains a recurrent problem. Flooding results from a combination of heavy rainfall, upstream runoff, high tides, land subsidence, sedimentation, waste, and limited drainage capacity.
Flood-control policy has long relied on engineered works, including canals, river improvements, drainage infrastructure, pumps, and coastal-protection schemes. Land subsidence has increased coastal-flood risk, especially along the northern coast. Groundwater extraction and urban development are among the causes of land subsidence, which contributes to coastal-flood risk. Jakarta also has serious air- and water-quality problems, including polluted river water and health burdens from air pollution.
Climate
Jakarta has a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen: Am), with warm conditions throughout the year and a marked wet–dry rainfall pattern. The wet season generally lasts from October to May, while June to September is relatively drier, although rain occurs in every month. The heaviest rainfall usually falls between December and March, when average monthly totals exceed 150 millimetres, while July and August are normally the driest months.
The wet season is also the period of greatest flood risk. Heavy rainfall can combine with runoff from upstream areas, high tides, limited drainage capacity, land subsidence and dense urban development to produce riverine and coastal flooding.
Temperatures in Jakarta remain consistently warm throughout the year. Mean daily maximum temperatures are generally around 30 °C (86.0 °F) to 32 °C (89.6 °F), while mean daily minimum temperatures are around 24 °C (75.2 °F) to 25 °C (77.0 °F). Average monthly temperatures vary only slightly, at roughly 27 °C (80.6 °F), and recorded extremes range from about 18.9 °C (66.0 °F) to 37.9 °C (100.2 °F).
Cityscape
Jakarta's cityscape includes the colonial core of Jakarta Old Town, post-independence monumental and ceremonial spaces, high-rise commercial districts, and public and recreational areas. In Central Jakarta, the National Monument (Monas) stands at the centre of Merdeka Square; it was part of the mid-20th-century programme through which Sukarno promoted Jakarta as the capital of a newly independent state.
Since the late 20th century, tall buildings have become prominent in Jakarta's skyline, especially in the Golden Triangle and other central business districts. The city also contains large public and recreational spaces, including Merdeka Square, Ancol Dreamland, Ragunan Zoo, and Taman Mini Indonesia Indah.
Architecture
Jakarta's architecture ranges from Betawi vernacular houses to colonial buildings, post-independence monuments, and high-rise commercial districts. Betawi houses, the vernacular houses of the city's indigenous Betawi community, draw on Malay, Arab, Chinese, and Dutch influences. Their wide eaves, large openings, and open layouts are also suited to the tropical climate.
Many of Jakarta's historic buildings date from colonial Batavia. Colonial architecture in the city includes VOC-era structures in Jakarta Old Town, 19th-century buildings from Batavia's southward expansion to Weltevreden in present-day Central Jakarta, and late-colonial buildings from the early 20th century. These buildings include former government offices, churches, residences, and commercial structures, especially in the old colonial core and around Weltevreden.
In the early 20th century, new planned neighbourhoods and late-colonial houses were designed for urban living in the tropics. The Menteng district, developed in the 1910s, was planned as a middle-class residential area. Its original houses used features such as overhanging eaves, large windows, and open ventilation, with modern and Art Deco elements.
After independence, many of Jakarta's prominent public buildings were built as state projects. Under Sukarno, major works included the National Monument, the Senayan sports complex, and new ceremonial roads. The present national legislative complex originated in the mid-1960s CONEFO project; its Nusantara Building is noted for a two-part domed roof. Since the late 20th century, tall buildings have become prominent in Jakarta's skyline, particularly in the Golden Triangle and other central business districts.
Parks and public spaces
Public parks and green open spaces occupy a limited share of Jakarta's land area. Provincial government data for 2023 indicate that green open space (ruang terbuka hijau, RTH) covered about 5.18% of the city's total area, below the 30% minimum required by national spatial-planning law. Since 2015, the city has also developed child-friendly integrated public spaces (ruang publik terpadu ramah anak, RPTRA), neighbourhood facilities intended for play, social activity, and community use.
Merdeka Square (Medan Merdeka) in Central Jakarta surrounds the National Monument (Monas). Developed from the colonial Koningsplein in Weltevreden, it is one of the city's main civic spaces. Nearby Lapangan Banteng includes the West Irian Liberation Monument and has been redeveloped as a public square near Istiqlal Mosque and Jakarta Cathedral.
Other parks and recreation areas include Suropati Park and Menteng Park serve central districts, while Kalijodo Park is a more recent public-space development. Larger recreational sites include Ancol Dreamland, Ragunan Zoo, and Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, the last of which was developed as a cultural park tied to national representation.
Demographics
Migration has contributed heavily to Jakarta's population growth since the early post-independence decades. People have moved to the city from across Indonesia for employment, education, and business opportunities, and Jakarta has become a destination for migrants from all regions of the country. In 1961, 51% of Jakarta's population had been born in the city, while 46.7% had been born in other Indonesian provinces.
Modern population figures vary according to the boundary used. In 2025, Jakarta had about 11 million registered residents according to the city's population and civil registration office. The United Nations, using an urban-agglomeration approach, estimated the population of Jakarta and its surrounding urban area at nearly 42 million.
Growth has increasingly extended beyond Jakarta's provincial boundaries. From 1980 to 2018, the population of Jakarta rose from about 6.7 million to 10 million, while the Jakarta metropolitan area grew from roughly 11.4 million to 34 million. Much of this growth has occurred through suburban expansion into neighbouring areas of West Java and Banten.
Ethnicity
Jakarta is ethnically diverse and has no single majority ethnic group. According to tabulations from the 2010 Indonesian census, Javanese formed the largest ethnic group in the city, followed by Betawi, Sundanese, Chinese, and Batak; Minangkabau, Malays, Madurese, and other groups were also represented. Migration from across Indonesia accounts for much of the city's ethnic composition, with large communities from Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi, Madura, and other regions.
The Betawi people are generally regarded as Jakarta's indigenous community developed from the diverse populations of colonial Batavia. Early Batavia drew people from many parts of Asia and the Indonesian archipelago, including Chinese settlers, South Asian Muslims, Malays, Balinese, Buginese, Ambonese, Bandanese, and others. Interethnic contact and intermarriage contributed to the emergence of the Betawi as a distinct population, while Islam and local forms of Malay helped link communities of different origins. Betawi communities historically lived in and around the colonial city and are now distributed across the Jakarta metropolitan area.
Jakarta has also long had a significant Chinese population. Chinese communities have been present since the early period of Dutch Batavia, and Jakarta's Chinatowns include Glodok, Petak Sembilan, Pasar Baru, Kelapa Gading, and Pluit. Smaller but long-established Indian communities are also present, with Pasar Baru sometimes described as Jakarta's "Little India".
Internal migration has also brought sizeable communities from Sumatra and other islands. Batak, Minangkabau, Malay, Bugis, Madurese, and Palembangnese communities also appear in Jakarta's census-based population data. Among Batak residents in Jakarta, the Toba Batak are described as the largest sub-group. Minangkabau migration to Jakarta is part of the Minangkabau practice of merantau; by the mid-20th century, Jakarta had become an increasingly important destination for migrants from West Sumatra.
Language
Indonesian is the official language of Jakarta and is widely used in government, education, media, and public life. Residents from different ethnic and linguistic backgrounds commonly use Indonesian to communicate. The Betawi language of the Betawi community is a Malay-based variety that developed in Batavia and Jakarta through contact among different linguistic groups. It is closely related to the informal speech of Jakarta, while colloquial Jakartan Indonesian has become an influential urban variety of Indonesian.
Jakarta's migrant communities also maintain a range of heritage languages in family and community settings. Batak, Minangkabau, and Sundanese remain in use in particular Jakarta communities. Among Jakartan Chinese Indonesians, everyday language use has shifted towards Indonesian, with Chinese heritage languages maintained unevenly across families and generations.
Education
Jakarta and its surrounding metropolitan area contain several major public universities. These include the University of Indonesia, the State University of Jakarta, and Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University Jakarta. The city also has a large private higher-education sector, including institutions such as Trisakti University and Atma Jaya University.
Modern higher education in Jakarta has roots in colonial-era medical training in Batavia. In 1851, the Dutch East Indies administration established a programme to train young Javanese men as vaccinators; the curriculum was expanded in later decades and developed into institutions such as STOVIA and the Batavia Medical School.
For primary and secondary education, Jakarta has public and private schools, including bilingual and international institutions. The provincial government lists several international schools operating in the city, including the Jakarta Intercultural School and Australian Independent School.