The Dawoodi Bohras are a religious denomination within the Ismā'īlī branch of Shia Islam. They number approximately one million worldwide and have settled in over 40 countries around the world. The majority of the Dawoodi Bohra community resides in India, with sizable congregations in Pakistan, Yemen, East Africa, and the Middle East. They also have a growing presence in Europe, North America, and Australia.
The Dawoodi Bohra community follows Islam and is specifically identified as Shia Fatimid Ismaili Tayyibi Dawoodi Bohra. Their faith is founded on the conviction that there is only one God, that the Quran is the message of God, that the Islamic prophet Muhammad is the last of the prophets, and that Ali is his legatee and successor. They follow the tenets of Islam, such as reciting the Quran, performing the five daily prayers (Salah), annual tithes of 2.5% (or 1⁄40) of total income and savings (Zakat), fasting during the month of Ramadan (Sawm), the mandatory Hajj pilgrimage to Makkah and the Prophet's shrine in Madinah and religious struggle (Jihad).
At the core of their faith is the belief that the Ahl al-Bayt, members of the Muhammad's family, are the rightful imams and like all Shia Muslims, they hold that Ali bin Abi Talib, Muhammad's legatee, succeeded him and provided guidance, interpretation and explanation of the Quran. A fundamental tenet of the Dawoodi Bohra faith is that there will always be an imam present on earth, who is descended from Muhammad's grandson Imam Husain, to carry on the task of leading the faithful.
When the imam chooses to withdraw from public view (as is the case today), he is represented by the Da'i al-Mutlaq (an unrestricted missionary) who, like the imam, preserves and protects the faith until the imam's return. After the 21st imam chose seclusion in 1132AH, the Dais operated from Yemen and subsequently from India, for the last 300 years. The present leader is the 53rd Dai al-Mutlaq, Mufaddal Saifuddin who assumed office in January 2014.
The Bohras are well-educated and wealthy, typically affluent traders, businesspersons, entrepreneurs and professionals (doctors, lawyers or accountants). The word "Bohra" comes from the Gujarati word vohrvu or vyavahar, meaning "to trade". Their heritage is derived from the traditions of the Fatimid imams; direct descendants of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatima, who ruled over North Africa between the 10th and 11th century CE. Whilst adherence to traditional values is important for the community, they are also known for their business-oriented and forward outlook. Nonetheless, they are the only Muslim community of South Asia to practice Female Genital Mutilation, a widely criticised practice but defended by the community.
Lisan al-Da'wat is the language of the Bohras. The language is based on a Neo-Indo-Aryan language, Gujarati, but incorporates a heavy amount of Arabic, Urdu, and Persian vocabulary and is written in the Arabic script naskh style. The Bohras' cultural attire is known as Libas al-Anwar. Prominent religious festivals include Eid-e-Milad an-Nabi, Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha and Muharram. The majlis is an age-old practice of the community, who congregate on major dates in the Islamic calendar. The Bohra community during their gatherings, eat in groups of eight, seated around a large steel platter called a thaal.
History
Dawoodi Bohras are a subset of the Taiyebi sect of the Musta'li branch of Isma'ilism, a part of Shia Islam. Central to their beliefs is reverence for the Fatimid imams, who trace their lineage to Muhammad's daughter, Fatima.
Fatimid imams
The Fatimids, descendants of Muhammad, ruled over North Africa and Egypt, Hejaz, and the Levant between the 10th and 11th centuries. They flourished during what Maurice Lombard called the Golden Age of Islam, and were patrons of arts, learning, and scientific discovery. The 14th Imam, al-Mui’zz, founded the city of Cairo and established Al-Azhar University, one of the oldest universities in the world.
Before the empire's decline, Al-Amir bi-Ahkam Allah, the 20th Fatimid imam, directed his grand emissary, Arwa bint Ahmad, the Sulayhid queen of Yemen, to establish the office of the Da'i al-Mutlaq (lit. 'unrestricted missionary') to act as vicegerent for his son, the 21st Imam Al-Tayyib Abu'l-Qasim and to lead the faithful. Arwa bint Ahmad appointed Zoeb bin Musa as the first Da'i al-Mutlaq.
Succession to the office of al-Da'i al-Mutlaq happens through nass, whereby each Da'i appoints a successor in his own lifetime.
Origins in India
The roots of the community's establishment in India go back to the Fatimid era, when Al Mustansir Billah, the 18th Imam, sent a Dai named Abdullah from Yemen to initiate the Da’wah on his behalf. Abdullah arrived in Cambay (modern day Khambhat, Gujarat) in AD 1067/H 460 and soon won many converts, including local rulers. Abdullah was the first Wali (representative) in India.
The seclusion of al-Tayyib led to the establishment of the office of al-Dai al-Mutlaq in Yemen. The Indian community which had pledged allegiance to the Fatimids continued to remain loyal to the Dais in Yemen. This resulted in a secession with the Hafizis, led by Al-Tayyib's uncle, Abd al-Majid. Twenty-three Dais operated from their mountain bases in Yemen for nearly four centuries, preserving the faith and authoring seminal works. The 19th Dai, Idris Imaduddin, wrote numerous works, including a comprehensive and detailed history of the Fatimid faith.
Meanwhile, the community in Gujarat had maintained ties with their Dais in Yemen, who closely supervised their affairs and regularly welcomed Bohra delegations from Gujarat. During this time, the community grew in size, especially in Cambay, Patan, Sidhpur, and Ahmedabad.
Yusuf bin Sulayman Najmuddin, originally from Sidhpur, a town in Gujarat, was one of the Bohras who travelled to Yemen to seek knowledge from the Dai. Najmuddin arrived in Yemen while still in his youth and first studied under Hasan bin Nuh al-Bharuchi. He was eventually appointed the 23rd Dai as his successor and became the first from the Indian community to lead the Tayyibi Da’wa as the 24th al-Mutlaq. When Najmuddin died in CE 1567/H 974, the central headquarters of the Da’wah were transferred from Yemen to Gujarat by his Indian successor, Jalal bin Hasan.
When the 26th al-Dai al-Mutlaq died in CE 1589/H 997, he was succeeded by Dawood Bin Qutubshah. However, three years later, Sulayman bin Hasan, a high-ranking dignitary in Yemen, claimed the succession to the leadership of the community for himself. This succession dispute was brought before the Mughal emperor Akbar in 1597. A special tribunal decided in favour of Dawood Bin Qutubshah. However, this did not dissolve tensions, leading to a schism in the community. A majority of Bohras acknowledged Dawood Bin Qutubshah as the rightful successor and henceforth came to be known as Dawoodis (or Da’udis.)
Major centres
Over the next few centuries, the Bohra headquarters moved within India with the changing location of the Dai. The centre of the Da’wah has been in six places: Ahmedabad (eight Dais, from 1567/974 to 1655/1065); Jamnagar in the Kathiawar region of Gujarat (five Dais, from 1655/1065 to 1737/1150); Ujjan in the present-day state of Madhya Pradesh (two Dais, from 1737/1150 to 1779/1193); Burhanpur, Madhya Pradesh (one Dai, from 1779/1193 to 1785/1200); Surat in the present-day state of Gujarat (eight Dais, from 1785/1200 to 1933/1351) and Mumbai in the state of Maharashtra, where the current Dai resides.
Starting in the early 19th century, some community members emigrated in search of better livelihoods. The first wave of Bohra traders to migrate to East Africa did so in the aftermath of a severe drought in Kathiawar. The 43rd Dai, Abdeali Saifuddin, invited 12,000 of his followers to Surat, and provided food, work and lodgings for all of them. His only conditions were that they learn and practice vocational skills, and he gave them their earnings when it was time for them to leave Surat. Many from this group decided to use this capital to venture forth to trade in East Africa.
A century on from Abdeali Saifuddin, Taher Saifuddin acceded to the office of al-Dai al-Mutlaq as the 51st Dai, He is credited with revitalising the community by restructuring its organisation on modern lines.
He shifted the community headquarters from Surat to Mumbai, which had become a major centre of trade and commerce in India. Over time, Dawoodi Bohra communities have expanded globally through migration, contributing to the establishment of thriving communities in various regions.
Faith and beliefs
Monotheism
As Muslims, the Dawoodi Bohras believe in Tawhid, Islam's central monotheistic concept of a single, indivisible God (Allah).
Seven pillars
Walayah – devotion to God, Muhammad, his family, and his descendants – is the most important of the seven pillars of Islam according to the Dawoodi Bohra faith.
The other six pillars are tahaarat (purity in body and thought), salah (daily ritual prayers), zakaat (offering a portion of one's income in the cause of God), sawm (fasting in the month of Ramadan), hajj (a ritual pilgrimage to Mecca), and jihad (striving in the way of God). The Bohras build mosques wherever they live to congregate for prayers and majalis (religious congregation) for the zikr of God and his prophets, imams, and da'is.
Leadership
During the seclusion of the Imam, his vicegerent, al-Dai al-Mutlaq was appointed to lead the community and administer, with complete authority, its secular and religious affairs.
The Dai teaches Quranic precepts, which form the foundation of the faith, and guides the community. Over the nine centuries that this office has existed, each Dai is considered to have played an important role in shaping the community's social and economic progress. Community members seek and abide by his counsel in different aspects of life.
The 1st Dai, Dhu'ayb bin Musa, was appointed in 1138 (532H) in Yemen by Queen Arwa bint Ahmed when the 21st Imam went into seclusion. Over the next 400 years, 23 Dais established the Dawat in Yemen. The seat of the Dawat then transferred from Yemen to India, where the 24th Dai, Yusuf bin Sulayman Najmuddin, became the first Dai to assume office from this region. Despite territorial and political upheavals through different periods, the Dais persevered and continued to lead the faithful and preserve the faith.
The current leader of the Dawoodi Bohra community is the 53rd Dai al-Mutlaq, Aali Qadr Mufaddal Saifuddin, who lives in India. Syedna Saifuddin is a descendant of Muhammad, who was himself a descendant of Abraham, through an unbroken chain of noble and august ancestry. His heritage to Muhammad traces back through Muhammad's daughter, Fatima al-Zahra, and her husband Ali ibn Abi Talib. From Fatima and Ali, the line continues through their son, Hussein, and the subsequent imams in the Ismaili tradition up to the fifth imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq.
Demographics and culture
As of 2021, there are an estimated 1 million Dawoodi Bohras around the world. The majority reside in India and Pakistan. A sizeable diaspora is spread across Europe, North America, the Middle East, Asia and East Africa.
The Bohras are prosperous traders, industrialists, businesspersons or skilled professionals.
Name and etymology
The word Bohra takes root in the Gujarati word vohrvu, in reference to their traditional occupation as traders. The name 'Dawoodi' is an eponym derived from Dawood Bin Qutubshah, the 27th Da'i al-Mutlaq, who emerged as the leader of the majority following a schism in 1588.
Language
Dawoodi Bohra culture is a blend of Yemeni, Egyptian and Indian cultures. Their language Lisan al-Dawat, written in Perso-Arabic script, derives from Arabic, Urdu, Persian, Sanskrit, and Gujarati.
Lisan al-Dawat, which takes its basic structure from Gujarati developed as a medium to articulate Islamic values and heritage. Though Arabic remains community's dominant liturgical language, Lisan al-Dawat is its language of sermons and its medium of official and day-to-day communication.
Dress
The Dawoodi Bohras wear distinct attire. The men traditionally dress in a predominantly white, three-piece outfit: kurta, a form of tunic; saaya, an overcoat of equal length; and izaar, loose-fit trousers; with topi, a crocheted white cap with a gold design. Men, adhering to the customs of Muhammad, are expected to grow a full beard.
The women wear a two-piece dress called rida, distinct from hijab, purdah, and chador. Its distinguishing features are bright colors, decorative patterns and lace.
Cuisine
Joining each other for meals is a well-known Dawoodi Bohra custom. Families and friends gather around sharing the meal from a large circular platter called a thaal. The thaal is raised upon a kundali or tarakti made of wood or metal, on top of a safra, a large cloth that covers the floor.
The meal begins and ends with a taste of salt, traditionally said to cleanse the palate and prevent diseases. A common etiquette is to wash both hands using a chilamchi lota (basin and jug). At community feasts, the Bohras first eat mithaas (sweet dish), followed by kharaas (savoury dish), and then the main course. Food wastage is frowned upon. Those seated at the thaal are encouraged to take smaller portions and expected to finish whatever is taken.
The Bohra cuisine, influenced by Gujarati, Persian, Yemeni, Arabic and Egyptian cuisines, is known for its unique taste and dishes such as bohra-style biryani, dal chaawal palidu (rice, lentils, and curry), kheema samosa (minced mutton samosa), dabba gosht, and masala bateta (spicy potatoes).
Traditions and practices
Qardan Hasana
Islam prohibits riba (lit. 'usury') and interest; the Dawoodi Bohras follow the practice of Qardan Hasana (lit. 'good loan'), which means interest-free loans. Based on the ideal of benefitting the borrower (as opposed to the lender), this model has played an important role in the economic growth of the community.
Community members are discouraged from bank saving, time deposits or borrowing, EMI finance schemes, overdrafts, contributing to or accepting money from insurance schemes, investments in commodities and stock markets, cryptocurrency, pension, mutual or retirement fund investments deeming them haram (forbidden) in Islam. Instead, he encourages strict adherence to traditional Islamic financial principles, urging followers to rely on community-based support systems rather than conventional financial instruments which are speculative in nature (gharar, maisir) or interest-based (riba). This approach has led to the development of numerous financial structures within the community, giving community members financial flexibility and integration with modern economic systems.
Mithaq
The rite of initiation for the Bohras is the mithaq. This ceremony is a covenant between the believer and God, effected through God's representative on earth. The mithaq binds a believer to the duties owed to God, including an oath of allegiance: a vow to accept the spiritual guidance of the Da'i al-Mutlaq wholeheartedly and without reservation. This ceremony, akin to baptism in Christianity, is mandatory to enter the fold of the faith.
The mithaq is first taken at whatever age a child is deemed to have reached maturity: most commonly, thirteen years for girls, fourteen or fifteen for boys. These vows are renewed throughout a Bohra's adult life.
Calendar
The Dawoodi Bohra follow a Fatimid-era tabular calendar which matches the lunar cycle of 354 days (and hence requires no adjustments). The odd-numbered months have 30 days and the even-numbered months have 29 days—except in a leap year when the 12th and final month, Zil Hajj, has 30 days. This contrasts with other Muslim communities, which base the beginnings of specific Islamic months on sightings of the moon crescent.
Occasions
Dawoodi Bohras observe all significant occasions on the Muslim calendar, such as Muharram, Ramadan, Eid al Fitr and Eid al Adha and Mawlid al Nabi. They also observe some occasions particular to their sect, such as the death anniversaries of previous dais and the birthday of the current dai. These occasions typically bring together members of the community for educational sermons and communal meals.