Tokugawa Ieyasu (born Matsudaira Takechiyo; January 31, 1543 – June 1, 1616) was a Japanese samurai, daimyo and the founder and first shogun of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan, which ruled from 1603 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. He was the third of the three "Great Unifiers" of Japan, along with his former lord Oda Nobunaga and fellow Oda subordinate Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The son of a minor daimyo, Ieyasu once lived as a hostage under daimyo Imagawa Yoshimoto on behalf of his father. He later succeeded as daimyo after his father's death, serving as ally, vassal, and general of the Oda clan, and building up his strength under Oda Nobunaga.
After Oda Nobunaga's death, Ieyasu was briefly a rival of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, before declaring his allegiance to Toyotomi and fighting on his behalf. Under Toyotomi, Ieyasu was relocated to the Kanto plains in eastern Japan, away from the Toyotomi power base in Osaka. He built his castle in the fishing village of Edo (now Tokyo). He became the most powerful daimyo and the most senior officer under the Toyotomi regime. Ieyasu preserved his strength during Toyotomi's failed attempts to conquer Korea. After Hideyoshi's death and the Battle of Sekigahara, Ieyasu seized power in 1600.
He received appointment as shōgun in 1603, and voluntarily resigned from his position in 1605, although he still held the de facto control of government until his death in 1616. He implemented a set of careful rules known as the bakuhan system. This system used precisely graded rewards and punishments to encourage (or compel) the daimyo and samurai to live in peace with each other under the Tokugawa shogunate.
Early life (1543–1561)
Tokugawa Ieyasu was born in Okazaki Castle on the 26th day of the twelfth month of the eleventh year of Tenbun, according to the Japanese calendar, January 31, 1543 according to the Western calendar. Originally named Matsudaira Takechiyo (松平 竹千代), he was the son of Matsudaira Hirotada (松平 広忠), the daimyo of Mikawa of the Matsudaira clan, and Odai no Kata (於大の方; Lady Odai), the daughter of a neighbouring samurai lord, Mizuno Tadamasa (水野 忠政). His mother and father were step-siblings. They were 17 and 15 years old, respectively, when Takechiyo was born.
During the Muromachi period, the Matsudaira clan controlled a portion of Mikawa Province (the eastern half of modern Aichi Prefecture). Ieyasu's father, Matsudaira Hirotada, was a minor local warlord based at Okazaki Castle who controlled a portion of the Tōkaidō highway linking Kyoto with the eastern provinces. His territory was surrounded by stronger and predatory neighbors, including the Imagawa clan based in Suruga Province to the east and the Oda clan to the west. Hirotada's main enemy was Oda Nobuhide, the father of Oda Nobunaga.
In the year of Takechiyo's birth, the Matsudaira clan split. Hirotada's uncle, Matsudaira Nobutaka defected to the Oda clan. This gave Oda Nobuhide the confidence to attack Okazaki. Soon afterwards, Hirotada's father-in-law died, and his heir, Mizuno Nobumoto, revived the clan's traditional enmity against the Matsudaira and declared allegiance to Oda Nobuhide as well. As a result, Hirotada divorced Odai-no-kata and sent her back to her family. Hirotada later remarried to different wives, and Takechiyo eventually had 11 half-brothers and sisters.
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Hostage life
As Oda Nobuhide continued to attack Okazaki, Hirotada turned to his powerful eastern neighbor, Imagawa Yoshimoto, for assistance. Yoshimoto agreed to an alliance under the condition that Hirotada send his young heir to Sunpu Domain as a hostage. Oda Nobuhide learned of this arrangement and had Takechiyo abducted. Takechiyo was five years old at the time. Nobuhide threatened to execute Takechiyo unless his father severed all ties with the Imagawa clan. However, Hirotada refused, stating that sacrificing his own son would show his seriousness in his pact with the Imagawa. Despite this refusal, Nobuhide chose not to kill Takechiyo, but instead held him hostage for the next three years at the Honshōji Temple in Nagoya. It was rumored that Oda Nobunaga met Takechiyo at the temple, when Takechiyo was six years old, and Nobunaga was 14. However, Katsuhiro Taniguchi reported there is no concrete historical records about this story of first meeting between Takechiyo with Nobunaga.
In 1549, when Takechiyo was six, his father Hirotada died of unknown causes. There was a popular theory that he was murdered by his vassals, who had been bribed by the Oda clan. However, a scholarly article published by Muraoka Mikio in 2015 states that the assassination theory is unreliable and Hirotada's death may have been caused by a natural illness.
Around the same time, Oda Nobuhide died during an epidemic. Nobuhide's death dealt a heavy blow to the Oda clan.
In 1551, an army under the command of Imagawa Sessai laid siege to the castle where Oda Nobuhiro, Nobuhide's illegitimate eldest son, was living. Nobuhiro was trapped by the Imagawa clan but was saved through negotiation by Oda Nobunaga, Nobuhide's second son and heir. Sessai made an agreement with Nobunaga to take Takechiyo back to Imagawa, and he agreed. Takechiyo, now nine years old, was taken as a hostage to Sunpu.
At Sunpu, he was treated fairly well as a potentially useful ally of the Imagawa clan until 1556 when he was 14 years old. Yoshimoto decided that the Matsudaira clan's territory would be inherited by Takechiyo in the future, with the aim that the Imagawa clan could rule the area by extensions of their Matsudaira clan as their vassal, including Zuien-in (the daughter of Matsudaira Nobutada and Takechiyo's great-aunt), who was the only member of the Anjo Matsudaira clan left in Okazaki Castle.
Service under Imagawa clan
In 1556, Takechiyo officially came of age, with Imagawa Yoshimoto presiding over his genpuku ceremony. Following tradition, he changed his name from Matsudaira Takechiyo to Matsudaira Jirōsaburō Motonobu (松平 次郎三郎 元信). He was also briefly allowed to visit Okazaki to pay his respects to the tomb of his father, and receive the homage of his nominal retainers, led by the karō Torii Tadayoshi.
One year later, at the age of 15 (according to East Asian age reckoning), he married his first wife, Lady Tsukiyama, a relative of Imagawa Yoshimoto, and changed his name again to Matsudaira Kurandonosuke Motoyasu (松平 蔵人佐 元康). A year later, their son, Matsudaira Nobuyasu, was born. He was then allowed to return to Mikawa Province. There, the Imagawa ordered him to fight against the Oda clan in a series of battles.
Motoyasu fought his first battle in 1558 at the siege of Terabe. The lord of Terabe, Suzuki Shigeteru (or Suzuki Shigetatsu), betrayed the Imagawa by defecting to Oda Nobunaga. This was nominally within Matsudaira territory, so Imagawa Yoshimoto entrusted the campaign to Motoyasu and his retainers from Okazaki. Motoyasu led the attack in person, but after taking the outer defences, he burned the main castle and withdrew. As anticipated, the Oda forces attacked his rear lines, but Motoyasu was prepared and drove off the Oda army.
He then succeeded in delivering supplies during the siege of Odaka Castle a year later. Odaka was one of five disputed frontier forts under attack by the Oda clan, and the only one that still remained under Imagawa control. Motoyasu launched diversionary attacks against the two neighboring forts and, when the garrisons of the other forts came to assist, Motoyasu's supply column was able to reach Odaka.
By 1559, the leadership of the Oda clan had passed to Oda Nobunaga. In 1560, Imagawa Yoshimoto, leading a large army of 25,000 men, invaded Oda territory. Motoyasu was assigned a separate mission to capture the stronghold of Marune in the Siege of Marune operation. As a result, he and his men were not present at the Battle of Okehazama where Yoshimoto was killed in a surprise assault by Nobunaga, In the end, Motoyasu managed to capture Marune castle.
Later, in response to the news of Yoshimoto's death, Motoyasu sent lookouts to check the state of the battle and then retreated from Odaka Castle at midnight. After leaving Odaka Castle, Motoyasu's forces headed for Okazaki with Asai Michitada as their guide. On the way, they were stopped by the Mizuno clan's forces at Chiryu, but because Asai Michitada was with them, they were not attacked. Having escaped from danger, Motoyasu entered Daijuji Temple outside Okazaki Castle the following day.
With Imagawa Yoshimoto dead, and the Imagawa clan in a state of confusion, Motoyasu used the opportunity to assert his independence and marched his men back into the abandoned Okazaki Castle and reclaimed his ancestral seat. Motoyasu then decided to ally with Oda Nobunaga. Motoyasu's wife, Lady Tsukiyama, and infant son, Matsudaira Nobuyasu, were held hostage in Sunpu by Imagawa Ujizane, Yoshimoto's heir, so the deal was secret.
In 1561, Motoyasu openly ended his allegiance to the Imagawa clan and captured Kaminogō castle. Kaminogō was held by Udono Nagamochi. Resorting to stealth, Motoyasu forces under Hattori Hanzō attacked under cover of darkness, setting fire to the castle and capturing two of Udono's sons. He then used them as hostages to exchange for his wife and son.
On September 13th, 1561, Motoyasu sent his commanders to the battle of Fujinami Nawate, one of a series of battles between the Kira clan and Matsudaira clan over Tojo Castle, the residence of the Tojo branch of the Kira clan. In this battle, Kira Yoshiaki's chief retainer, Tominaga Tadamoto, was killed by Honda Hirotaka at Fujinami Nawate near the castle (near Seto Fujinami, Kira-cho, Nishio City, Aichi Prefecture ). Yoshiaki surrendered afterwards. However, Motoyasu also lost one of his commander, Okubo Tadahō, who was killed by Tadatomo during the battle.
Ieyasu-Nobunaga Alliance (1562–1582)
Sometime in the aftermath of the Okehazama battle where Imagawa Yoshimoto was slain, Motoyasu formed the Kiyosu Alliance with Oda Nobunaga, daimyo lord of Owari Province and the head of the Oda clan.
In 1563, Matsudaira Nobuyasu, the first son of Motoyasu, was married to Oda Nobunaga's daughter Tokuhime. In February, Matsudaira Motoyasu changed his name to Matsudaira Ieyasu. Some historians believe that these actions provoked the pro-Imagawa faction, including the Sakurai and Okusa Matsudaira families, which led to the simultaneous uprising against Ieyasu in the following year.
Unification of Mikawa
During this period, the Matsudaira clan faced a threat from the Ikkō-ikki movement, in which peasants banded together with militant monks under the Jōdo Shinshū sect, and rejected the traditional feudal social order. Ieyasu undertook several battles to suppress this movement in his territories, including the Battle of Azukizaka (1564).
Some of Ieyasu's vassals were in the Ikkō-ikki ranks, notably Honda Masanobu and Natsume Yoshinobu, who had deserted him for the Ikkō-ikki rebellion out of religious sympathy. However, many of Ieyasu's core vassals who were also followers of the sect, such as Ishikawa Ienari and Honda Tadakatsu, quickly abandoned the Ikkō faith of Jōdo Shinshū and stayed loyal to Ieyasu in order to confront the rebels.
On January 15, 1564, Ieyasu decided to concentrate his forces to attack and eliminate the Ikkō-ikki from Mikawa. In the Battle of Azukizaka, Ieyasu was fighting on the front lines and was nearly killed when he was struck by several bullets, but survived because they did not penetrate his armor. Both sides were using new gunpowder weapons which the Portuguese had introduced to Japan 20 years earlier. At the end of battle, the Ikkō-ikki were defeated. By 1565, Ieyasu had become the master of all of Mikawa Province.
In 1566, as Ieyasu declared his independence from the Imagawa clan, he reformed the order of Mikawa province, starting with the Matsudaira clan, after he pacified Mikawa. This decision was made after he was counseled by his senior vassal Sakai Tadatsugu to abandon the clan's allegiance to the Imagawa clan. He also strengthened his power base by creating a military government system for the Tokugawa clan in Mikawa which was based on his hereditary vassals, the Fudai daimyō. The system which was called "Sanbi no gunsei" (三備の軍制) divided governance into three sections: Hatamoto-Senshi, Higashi (western) Mikawa, and Nishi (eastern) Mikawa.
Tokugawa clan
In 1567, Ieyasu started the family name "Tokugawa", changing his name to the well-known Tokugawa Ieyasu. As a member of the Matsudaira clan, he claimed descent from the Seiwa Genji branch of the Minamoto clan. As there was no proof that the Matsudaira clan were descendants of Emperor Seiwa, the Emperor initially did not approve the appointment, citing the lack of a precedent for the Serada clan of the Seiwa Genji clan to be appointed as Mikawa-no-kami (Lord of Mikawa).
Ieyasu then consulted with imperial noble Konoe Motohisa through the mediation of a Mikawa native and the abbot of the Kyo Seiganji Temple. Due to Motohisa's efforts, Yoshida Kaneyoshi discovered a genealogical document in the Manri-koji family that was precedent, saying, "Tokugawa (belongs) to Minamoto clan, as another offshoot of the Fujiwara clan," and a copy was transferred to him and used for the application. Ieyasu then gained the permission of the Imperial Court and he was bestowed the courtesy title Mikawa-no-kami and the court rank of Junior 5th Rank, Lower Grade (從五位下, ju go-i no ge).
Though the Tokugawa clan could claim some modicum of freedom, they were very much subject to the requests of Oda Nobunaga. Ieyasu remained an ally of Nobunaga and his Mikawa soldiers were part of Nobunaga's army which captured Kyoto in 1568.
In 1568, at the same time, Ieyasu was eager to expand eastward to Tōtōmi Province. Ieyasu and Takeda Shingen, the head of the Takeda clan in Kai Province, made an alliance for the purpose of conquering all the Imagawa territory. It is said that the Tokugawa clan had made an agreement with the Takeda clan when dividing the territory that the eastern Suruga Province would become Takeda territory and the western Tōtōmi province would be Tokugawa territory, with the Ōi River as the border.
On January 8, 1569, the Takeda vassal Akiyama Nobutomo invaded the Tōtōmi province from Shinano Province. The Takeda clan, through Oda Nobunaga, with whom they had a friendly relationship, asked Ieyasu, who was Nobunaga's ally, to reconsider cooperation with the Takeda, but Ieyasu rejected the idea, demonstrating a degree of independence from Nobunaga.
Tōtōmi campaign
In 1568, Ieyasu besieged the Horikawa Castle in Tōtōmi and captured it in 1569. Ieyasu then ordered Ishikawa Hanzaburo to massacre the castle prisoners and residents, including women and children. It was recorded that around 700 people were beheaded on the banks of the Miyakoda River. Ōkubo Tadachika, who witnessed this massacre testified in his personal journal, Mikawa Monogatari, that "... both men and women can be cut into pieces [sic]...".
Later the same year, Ieyasu's troops penetrated Tōtōmi Province. Meanwhile, Takeda Shingen's troops captured Suruga Province, including the Imagawa capital of Sunpu. Imagawa Ujizane fled to Kakegawa Castle, which led Ieyasu to lay siege to Kakegawa.
Ieyasu then negotiated with Ujizane, promising that if Ujizane surrendered himself and the remainder of Tōtōmi, Ieyasu would assist Ujizane in regaining Suruga. Ujizane had nothing left to lose, and Ieyasu immediately ended his alliance with Takeda, instead making a new alliance with Takeda's enemy to the north, Uesugi Kenshin of the Uesugi clan. Through these political manipulations, Ieyasu gained the support of the samurai of Tōtōmi Province. Furthermore, Ieyasu also placed the "Iinoya's trio" (Iinoya-Sanninshu) of clans under the command of his trusted vassal, Ii Naomasa. The Iinoya trio were powerful clans that originated from the eastern side of Mikawa who greatly contributed to Ieyasu's expansion during his conquest of the former Imagawa territories in Tōtōmi Province.
In 1570, Ieyasu established Hamamatsu as the capital of his territory, placing his son Matsudaira Nobuyasu in charge of Okazaki.
Campaign against Asakura-Azai clan
Asakura Yoshikage, the head of the Asakura clan and regent of Ashikaga Yoshiaki, refused to come to Kyōto. This caused Nobunaga to declare both of them rebels. Several reports from Mikawa Monogatari, Nobunaga Koki, Tokugawa Jikki, and a supplement from Ietada Nikki recorded that Ieyasu and his forces also participated in Oda's punitive campaign against Asakura, in which they captured Mount Tenzutsu castle. The Oda-Tokugawa forces managed to kill 1,370 enemies on April 25.
They continued the next day by besieging Kanegasaki castle. However the Azai clan sent reinforcements to relieve the siege so Nobunaga retreated without contacting Ieyasu. After dawn, Ieyasu withdrew from battle guided by Kinoshita Tokichi (later named Toyotomi Hideyoshi), an Oda vassal.
Later, in July 1570, the brother-in-law of Nobunaga, Azai Nagamasa, who had broken his alliance with the Oda clan during the siege of Kanegasaki, and Asakura combined to fight the combined armies of Nobunaga and Ieyasu, who led 5,000 of his men to support Nobunaga at the battle. As the Oda clan engaged the Azai clan army on the right, Tokugawa's forces engaged the Asakura clan's army on the left. At first, Asakura's army gained the advantage as they steadily pushed back the Tokugawa army. However, Honda Tadakatsu suddenly launched a lone, suicidal charge, while Sakakibara Yasumasa launched his force in a timely counterattack on Asakura's flank; together they managed to beat Asakura's forces. Since Ieyasu's army was now free to move, they exploited the gap between Asakura and Azai's forces and sent Tadakatsu and Yasumasa to attack the flank of Azai's formation, which allowed the Oda-Tokugawa forces to win the battle.
Suruga campaign against Takeda clan
In October 1571, Takeda Shingen broke the alliance with the Oda-Tokugawa forces and allied with the Odawara Hōjō clan. He decided to make a drive for Kyoto at the urging of the shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiaki, starting by invading Tokugawa lands in Tōtōmi. Takeda Shingen's first objectives in his campaign against Ieyasu were Nishikawa Castle, Yoshida Castle and Futamata Castle.
In 1572, after besieging Futamata, Shingen would press on past Futamata towards the major Tokugawa home castle at Hamamatsu. Ieyasu asked for help from Nobunaga, who sent him some 3,000 troops. Early in 1573, the two armies met at the Battle of Mikatagahara, north of Hamamatsu. The considerably larger Takeda army, under the expert direction of Shingen, overwhelmed Ieyasu's troops and caused heavy casualties. Despite his initial reluctance, Ieyasu was convinced by his generals to retreat. Later in his fortress Ieyasu brazenly ordered the men in his castle to light torches, sound drums, and leave the gates open, to properly receive the returning warriors. To the surprise and relief of the Tokugawa army, this spectacle made the Takeda generals suspicious that they were being led into a trap, so they did not besiege the castle and instead made camp for the night. This error allowed a band of Tokugawa soldiers to raid the camp in the ensuing hours, further upsetting the already disoriented Takeda army, and ultimately resulting in Shingen's decision to call off the offensive altogether. Takeda Shingen would not get another chance to advance on Hamamatsu, much less Kyoto, since he died from unknown causes shortly after the siege of Noda Castle later that same year.
Around 1572 or 1573, according to various primary sources such as Shinchō Kōki, Mikawa Monogatari (三河物語), Ietada nikki (家忠日記) and Mikawa Tōdai-ki (三河東大記), Nobunaga sent a letter to the authorities in Suruga Province that he assigned Ieyasu as the controller of the province.
In 1574, Shingen was succeeded by his son Takeda Katsuyori and the conflict continued as the Tokugawa forces under Honda Tadakatsu and Sakakibara Yasumasa seized many of the Takeda clan's castles, including Komyo Castle. At some point, Ieyasu tried to capture Inui Castle in Tōtōmi Province, but strong resistance from its garrison commander, Amano Kagehira, forced Ieyasu to abort the siege. During their retreat, Kagehira launched a counterattack to pursue Ieyasu, but this was repelled by Mizuno Tadashige and Torii Mototada, who led the rearguard.
In April 1575, Ōga Yashirō, a deputy governor of over 20 villages in Oku district of Mikawa under Matsudaira Nobuyasu, was arrested by Ōkubo Tadayo and paraded around Hamamatsu Castle. According to the investigation, Yashirō was implicated in allegations of colluding with Takeda Katsuyori to betray Ieyasu and invade the Tokugawa clan's territory. According to a letter, Yashiro had teamed up with Takeda Katsuyori of Kai to seize Okazaki Castle. However, one of Yashiro's colleagues, Yamada Hachizō, betrayed Yashiro and passed this information to Nobuyasu. Meanwhile, Ieyasu himself also learned about Yashirō's further crimes of corruption in governance through a vassal's report. Yashirō was then executed by being mutilated alive with a saw, while Tadayo crucified his wife and children.
In June, during Takeda Katsuyori's raid on Mikawa Province when he attacked Yoshida Castle and besieged Nagashino Castle, Ieyasu appealed to Nobunaga for help; Nobunaga came personally with 30,000 men. The Oda-Tokugawa forces 38,000 strong won a great victory and successfully defended Nagashino Castle. Though the Takeda forces had been destroyed, Katsuyori survived the battle and retreated to Kai Province. For the next seven years, Ieyasu and Katsuyori fought a series of small battles through which Ieyasu's troops managed to wrest control of Suruga Province from the Takeda clan.
Nobuyasu Incident
In 1579, Lady Tsukiyama, Ieyasu's wife, and his heir Matsudaira Nobuyasu were accused by Nobunaga of conspiring with Takeda Katsuyori to assassinate Nobunaga, whose daughter Tokuhime was married to Nobuyasu. Ieyasu ordered his wife to be executed and forced his son to commit seppuku because of these accusations.
There are various theories regarding this incident. According to the "Mikawa Monogatari'", which was written by Ōkubo Tadachika, Tokuhime, wife of Nobuyasu, who was not on good terms with her mother-in-law Tsukiyama-dono, wrote in a letter to her father, Nobunaga, that her mother-in-law and her husband were secretly conspiring with Takeda Katsuyori.
However, this hypothesis has been considered implausible by various historians in the modern era. According to Katsuhiro Taniguchi, the more plausible theory was that there was friction within the house of Tokugawa clan between two factions with conflicting ideals, as proposed by the writer Tenkyu Goro. One faction, dubbed the "Hamamatsu Castle Faction," was active on the front lines and had many opportunities to advance their careers. The other faction was the "Okazaki Castle Faction," which consisted of Tokugawa vassals responsible for logistical support due to past injuries and other factors that caused them to play a lesser role in the politics of Tokugawa clan. According to this theory, the conflict between these two factions eventually led to a conflict between Ieyasu, representing the Hamamatsu faction, and his son Nobuyasu, representing the Okazaki faction, finally ending with Nobuyasu's death in prison. Nobuyasu planned to exile Ieyasu with the help of the Okazaki Castle faction. Before and after his son's execution, Ieyasu punished or executed many of those who worked at Okazaki Castle, although some escaped. Taniguchi theorized that Tsukiyama also participated in the coup d'état that was going on in Okazaki Castle. Furthermore, Sakai Tadatsugu, the most prominent general of Ieyasu, also may have played a role in confirming Oda Nobunaga's suspicion of the alleged betrayal against the Oda clan being planned by Nobuyasu Tsukiyama. Ieyasu may have concluded that if a high-ranking fudai daimyō such as Tadatsugu had confirmed the accusations against Lady Tsukiyama, then they must be true.
Another theory has said that Tadatsugu was actually conspiring with the Ieyasu's mother, Odai no Kata, to get rid of Lady Tsukiyama. Arthur Lindsay Sadler theorized this was a deliberate act of spite from Tadatsugu due to many senior Tokugawa clan generals' dislike of Nobuyasu.
In the same year, Ieyasu named his third son, Tokugawa Hidetada, as his heir, since his second son had been adopted by Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who would later become a powerful daimyo.
Takeda clan annihilation
In 1580, Ieyasu built five fortresses in order to isolate Takatenjin Castle from external supplies and reinforcements. In addition to those five new fortresses, Ieyasu renovated an old castle named Ogasayama fort, which had originally been built by Ieyasu far before the conquest of Tōtōmi Province against Imagawa clan to capture Kakegawa Castle. With the six fortresses, which were referred to as the "six fortresses of Takatenjin", completed, Ieyasu assigned Ishikawa Yasumichi to the Ogasayama fort, Honda Yasushige to the Nogasaka fort, Osuga Yasutaka to the Higamine, Shishigahana, and Nakamura forts, while Sakai Ietada was appointed to garrison the Mitsuiyama fort.
