Vice-Admiral of the White Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson, 1st Duke of Bronte (29 September 1758 – 21 October 1805) was a Royal Navy officer whose leadership, grasp of strategy, and unconventional tactics led to multiple decisive British naval victories during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. Trafalgar Square is dedicated to him. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest admirals in history.
Nelson was born into a moderately prosperous Norfolk family and joined the navy through the influence of his uncle Maurice Suckling, a high-ranking naval officer. Nelson rose rapidly through the ranks and served with leading naval commanders of the period before obtaining his own command at the age of 20 in 1778. He developed a reputation for personal valour and a firm grasp of tactics, but suffered periods of illness and unemployment after the end of the American War of Independence. The outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars allowed Nelson to return to service, where he was particularly active in the Mediterranean Sea. He fought in several minor engagements off Toulon and was important in the capture of Corsica, where he was wounded and partially lost sight in one eye, and subsequently performed diplomatic duties with the Italian states. In 1797, he distinguished himself while commanding HMS Captain at the Battle of Cape St Vincent. Shortly after this battle, Nelson took part in the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, where the attack failed and he lost his right arm, forcing him to return to England to recuperate. The following year he won a decisive victory over the French at the Battle of the Nile and remained in the Mediterranean to support the Kingdom of Naples against a French invasion.
In 1801, Nelson was dispatched to the Baltic Sea and defeated neutral Denmark at the Battle of Copenhagen. He commanded the blockade of the French and Spanish fleets at Toulon and, after their escape, chased them to the West Indies and back but failed to bring them to battle. After a brief return to England, he took over the Cádiz blockade in 1805. On 21 October 1805, the Franco-Spanish fleet came out of port, and Nelson's fleet engaged them at the Battle of Trafalgar. The battle became Britain's greatest naval victory, but Nelson, aboard HMS Victory, was fatally wounded by a French marksman. His body was brought back to England, where he was accorded a state funeral, and considered a hero.
Reading level
Audio Summary
Played with your browser's voice. Studio-quality audio can be added with a text-to-speech service.
Ask about this article
📝 Quick Quiz1 / 3
What is "Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson" primarily known for?
Vocix Daily — In Your Inbox
Top stories, deep-dive articles, and "On This Day" history — one crisp digest delivered every morning.
Sources & references
Reference material for this entry is drawn from the open encyclopedic record, including Wikipedia , available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license. Images are credited individually beside each photo.
Nelson's death at Trafalgar secured his position as one of Britain's most heroic figures. His signal just prior to the commencement of the battle, "England expects that every man will do his duty", is regularly quoted and paraphrased. Numerous monuments, including Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square, London, and the Nelson Monument in Edinburgh, have been created in his memory. In 2002, Nelson was named among the 100 Greatest Britons of all time.
Early life
Horatio Nelson was born on 29 September 1758 at a rectory in Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk, England; the sixth of eleven children of the Reverend Edmund Nelson and his wife Catherine Suckling. He was named "Horatio" after his godfather Horatio Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford. Horatio Walpole was a nephew of Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford, the de facto first prime minister of Great Britain. Nelson retained a strong Christian faith throughout his life. Nelson's maternal uncle Maurice Suckling was a high-ranking naval officer, and is believed to have had a major impact on Nelson's life.
Nelson attended Paston Grammar School in North Walsham until he was 12 years old, and also attended King Edward VI's Grammar School in Norwich. His naval career began on 1 January 1771, when he reported to the third-rate HMS Raisonnable as an ordinary seaman and coxswain under Suckling, who commanded the vessel. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed a midshipman and began officer training. Early in his service, Nelson discovered he experienced seasickness, a chronic issue he experienced for the rest of his life.
Raisonnable was commissioned during a period of tension with Spain, but when it passed, Suckling was transferred to the Nore guardship HMS Triumph. Nelson was dispatched to serve aboard the West Indiaman Mary Ann of the merchant shipping firm Hibbert, Purrier and Horton, in order to gain experience at sea. He sailed from Medway in Kent on 25 July 1771, heading to Jamaica and Tobago, and returning to Plymouth on 7 July 1772. He crossed the Atlantic twice before returning to serve under his uncle as the commander of his longboat, which carried sailors and dispatches to and from shore. Nelson then learnt of a planned expedition commanded by Constantine Phipps, intended to survey a passage in the Arctic by which it was hoped India could be reached: the fabled North-East Passage.
At his nephew's request, Suckling arranged for Nelson to join the expedition as coxswain, under Commander Skeffington Lutwidge aboard the converted bomb vessel, HMS Carcass. The expedition reached within ten degrees of the North Pole, however, unable to find a way through the dense ice floes, it was forced to turn back. By 1800, Lutwidge had begun to circulate a story that Nelson spotted and pursued a polar bear while the ship was trapped in the ice, before he was ordered to return to the ship. Later, in 1809, Lutwidge said Nelson and a companion gave chase to the bear and upon being questioned why, replied: "I wished, Sir, to get the skin for my father." Nelson briefly returned to Triumph after the expedition returned to Britain in September 1773. Suckling then arranged for his transfer to HMS Seahorse; one of two ships about to sail for the East Indies.
Nelson sailed for the East Indies on 19 November 1773, and arrived at the British outpost at Madras on 25 May 1774. Nelson and Seahorse spent the rest of the year cruising off the coast and escorting merchantmen. With the outbreak of the First Anglo-Maratha War, the British fleet operated in support of the East India Company. In early 1775, Seahorse was dispatched to carry a cargo of the company's money to Bombay. On 19 February, two of Hyder Ali's ketches attacked Seahorse, which drove them off after a brief exchange of fire. This was Nelson's first experience of battle. Nelson spent the rest of the year escorting convoys and continued to develop his navigation and ship handling skills. In early 1776, he contracted malaria and became seriously ill. He was discharged from Seahorse on 14 March and returned to England aboard HMS Dolphin. Nelson spent the six-month voyage recuperating and had almost recovered by the time he arrived in Britain in September. His patron Suckling had risen to the post of Comptroller of the Navy in 1775, and used his influence to help Nelson gain further promotion. Nelson was appointed acting lieutenant aboard HMS Worcester, which was about to sail to Gibraltar.
Worcester, commanded by Captain Mark Robinson, sailed as a convoy escort on 3 December, and returned with another convoy in April 1777. Nelson then travelled to London to take his lieutenant's examination on 9 April; his examining board consisted of Captains John Campbell, Abraham North, and his uncle Suckling. Nelson passed the examination, and the next day received his commission and an appointment to HMS Lowestoffe, which was preparing to sail to Jamaica under Captain William Locker. She sailed on 16 May, arrived on 19 July, and after reprovisioning, carried out several cruises in Caribbean waters. After the outbreak of the American War of Independence, Lowestoffe took several prizes, one of which was taken into Navy service as Little Lucy. Nelson asked for and was given command of her, and took her on two cruises of his own.
As well as giving him his first command, it gave Nelson the opportunity to explore his fledgling interest in science. During his first cruise commanding Little Lucy, Nelson led an expedition to the Caicos Islands, where he made detailed notes of the wildlife, and in particular a bird now believed to be the white-necked jacobin. Locker, impressed by Nelson's abilities, recommended him to the new commander-in-chief at Jamaica, Sir Peter Parker. Parker duly took Nelson onto his flagship HMS Bristol. The entry of the French into the war in support of the Americans meant further targets for Parker's fleet. It took many prizes towards the end of 1778, which brought Nelson an estimated £400 (equivalent to £55,100 in 2025) in prize money. Parker appointed him as master and commander of the brig HMS Badger on 8 December.
Nelson and Badger spent most of 1779 cruising off of the Central American coast, ranging as far as the British settlements at British Honduras (now Belize), and Nicaragua, but without much success at interception of enemy prizes. On his return to Port Royal, he learnt Parker had promoted him to post-captain on 11 June, and intended to give him another command. Nelson handed over the Badger to Cuthbert Collingwood while he awaited the arrival of his new ship: the 28-gun frigate HMS Hinchinbrook, newly captured from the French. While Nelson waited, news reached Parker of a French fleet commanded by Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing approaching Jamaica. Parker hastily organised his defences and placed Nelson in command of Fort Charles, which covered the approaches to Kingston. D'Estaing instead headed north, as he was ordered to besiege Savannah, and the anticipated invasion never materialised.
Nelson took command of the Hinchinbrook on 1 September 1779. Hinchinbrook sailed from Port Royal on 5 October and, in company with other British ships, proceeded to capture a number of American prizes. On his return to Jamaica in December, Nelson began to be troubled by recurrent attacks of malaria. Nelson remained in the West Indies in order to take part in Major-General John Dalling's attempt to capture the Spanish colonies in Central America, including an assault on the Fortress of the Immaculate Conception on the San Juan River in Nicaragua. In February 1780, Hinchinbrook sailed from Jamaica as an escort for Dalling's invasion force. After sailing up the mouth of the San Juan River, Nelson's expeditionary force obtained the surrender of the Fortress of the Immaculate Conception and its 160 Spanish defenders after a two-week siege. Despite this initial success, the British forces never reached Lake Nicaragua and, decimated by yellow fever, were forced to return to Jamaica. The British destroyed the fortress when they evacuated in January 1781. The failed campaign led to more than 2,500 casualties, making it the costliest British disaster of the entire war. Despite this, Nelson was praised for his efforts.
Parker recalled Nelson and gave him command of the 44-gun frigate HMS Janus. In 1780, Nelson fell seriously ill, possibly with dysentery, or yellow fever, in the jungles of Costa Rica, and was unable to assume command. He was taken to Kingston, Jamaica, to be nursed by "doctoress" Cubah Cornwallis. He was discharged in August and returned to Britain aboard HMS Lion, arriving in late November. Nelson gradually recovered over several months, and soon began agitating for a command. He was appointed to the frigate HMS Albemarle on 15 August 1781.
Command, 1781–1796
Captain of Albemarle
Nelson received orders on 23 October 1781 to take the newly refitted Albemarle to sea. He was instructed to collect an inbound convoy of the Russia Company at Elsinore and escort them back to Britain. For this operation, the Admiralty placed the frigates HMS Argo and HMS Enterprise under his command. Nelson successfully organised the convoy and escorted it into British waters. He then left the convoy to return to port, but severe storms hampered him. Gales almost wrecked Albemarle, as she was a poorly designed ship and an earlier accident had left her damaged, but Nelson eventually brought her into Portsmouth in February 1782. There, the Admiralty ordered him to fit Albemarle for sea and join the escort for a convoy collecting at Cork to sail for Quebec. Nelson arrived off Newfoundland with the convoy in late May, then detached on a cruise to hunt American privateers. Nelson was generally unsuccessful; he succeeded only in retaking several captured British merchant ships and capturing a number of small fishing boats and assorted craft.
In August 1782, Nelson had a narrow escape from a far superior French force under Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil, only evading them after a prolonged chase. Nelson arrived at Quebec on 18 September. He sailed again as part of the escort for a convoy to New York. He arrived in mid-November and reported to Admiral Samuel Hood, commander of the New York station. At Nelson's request, Hood transferred him to his fleet and Albemarle sailed in company with Hood, bound for the West Indies. On their arrival, the British fleet took up positions off Jamaica to await the arrival of de Vaudreuil's force. Nelson and the Albemarle were ordered to scout the numerous passages for signs of the enemy, but by early 1783 it became clear the French had eluded Hood.
During his scouting operations, Nelson had developed a plan to attack the French garrison of the Turks Islands. Commanding a small flotilla of frigates and smaller vessels, he landed a force of 167 sailors and marines early on the morning of 8 March under a supporting bombardment. The French were found to be heavily entrenched and, after several hours, Nelson called off the assault. Several officers involved criticised Nelson, but Hood does not appear to have reprimanded him. Nelson spent the rest of the war cruising in the West Indies, where he captured a number of French and Spanish prizes. After news of the peace reached Hood, Nelson returned to Britain in late June 1783.
Island of Nevis, marriage and peace
Nelson visited France in late 1783 and stayed with acquaintances at Saint-Omer, briefly attempting to learn French during his stay. He returned to England in January 1784 and attended court as part of Lord Hood's entourage. Influenced by the factional politics of the time, he contemplated standing for Parliament as a supporter of William Pitt, but was unable to find a seat.
In 1784, Nelson received command of the frigate HMS Boreas, with the assignment to enforce the Navigation Acts in the vicinity of Antigua. Nelson hated Antigua and the only consolation was Mary Moutray, whom he greatly admired. The Acts were unpopular with both the Americans and the colonies. Nelson served on the station under Admiral Sir Richard Hughes, and often came into conflict with his superior officer over their differing interpretation of the Acts. The captains of the American vessels Nelson had seized sued him for illegal seizure. Because the merchants of the nearby island of Nevis supported the American claim, Nelson was in peril of imprisonment; he remained sequestered on Boreas for eight months until the courts ruled in his favour.
Meanwhile, Nelson met Frances "Fanny" Nisbet, a young widow from a Nevis plantation family. Nelson developed an affection for her. In response, her uncle John Herbert offered him a massive dowry. Both Herbert and Nisbet concealed the fact that their famed riches were a fiction, and Fanny did not disclose she was infertile due to a womb infection. Once they were engaged, Herbert offered Nelson nowhere near the dowry he had promised. During the Georgian era, breaking a marital engagement was seen as quite dishonourable, and so Nelson and Nisbet were married at Montpelier Estate in Nevis on 11 March 1787, shortly before the end of his tour of duty in the Caribbean. The marriage was registered at Fig Tree Church in St John's Parish on Nevis. Nelson returned to England in July, with Fanny following later.
Nelson remained with Boreas until she was paid off in November 1787. He and Fanny then divided their time between Bath and London, occasionally visiting Nelson's relations in Norfolk. In 1788, they settled at Nelson's childhood home in Burnham Thorpe. Now in reserve and on half-pay, he attempted to persuade the Admiralty—and other senior figures he was acquainted with, such as Hood—to provide him with a command. He was unsuccessful, as there were too few ships in the peacetime navy, and Hood did not intercede on his behalf. Nelson spent his time trying to find employment for former crew members, attending to family affairs, and cajoling contacts in the navy for a posting. In 1792, the French revolutionary government annexed the Austrian Netherlands (now Belgium). The Admiralty recalled Nelson to service and gave him command of the 64-gun HMS Agamemnon in January 1793. Nelson took his stepson Josiah with him as a midshipman. On 1 February, France declared war.
Mediterranean service
In May 1793, Nelson sailed as part of a division commanded by Vice Admiral William Hotham, joined later that month by the rest of Lord Hood's fleet. The force initially sailed to Gibraltar and—with the intention of establishing naval superiority in the Mediterranean—made their way to Toulon, anchoring off the port in July. Toulon was largely controlled by moderate republicans and royalists, but threatened by the forces of the National Convention marching on the city. Short of supplies and doubting their ability to defend themselves, the city authorities requested Hood take it under his protection. Hood readily acquiesced, and sent Nelson to carry dispatches to Sardinia and Naples, requesting reinforcements. After delivering the dispatches to Sardinia, Agamemnon arrived at Naples in early September. There, Nelson met King Ferdinand IV of Naples, followed by the British ambassador to the kingdom, William Hamilton. During the negotiations for reinforcements, Nelson was introduced to Hamilton's new wife Emma Hamilton.
The negotiations were successful, and 2,000 sailors and several ships were mustered by mid-September. Nelson put to sea in pursuit of a French frigate, but on failing to catch her, sailed for Leghorn and then Corsica. He arrived at Toulon on 5 October, where he found a large French army had occupied the hills surrounding the city and was bombarding it. Hood still hoped the city could be held if more reinforcements arrived, and sent Nelson to join a squadron operating off Cagliari.
Corsica
Early on 22 October 1793, Agamemnon sighted five sails. Nelson closed with them and discovered they were a French squadron. He promptly gave chase, firing on the 40-gun Melpomene. During the action of 22 October 1793, he inflicted considerable damage, but the remaining French ships turned to join the battle. Realising he was outnumbered, Nelson withdrew and continued to Cagliari, arriving on 24 October. After making repairs, Nelson and Agamemnon sailed for Tunis on 26 October with a squadron under Commodore Robert Linzee. On arrival, Nelson was given command of a small squadron consisting of Agamemnon, three frigates and a sloop, and ordered to blockade the French garrison on Corsica. The fall of Toulon at the end of December 1793 severely damaged British fortunes in the Mediterranean. Hood had failed to make adequate provisions for a withdrawal and 18 French ships-of-the-line fell into republican hands. Nelson's mission to Corsica took on added significance, as it could provide the British a naval base close to the French coast. Hood therefore reinforced Nelson with extra ships in January 1794.
A British assault force landed on the island on 7 February, after which Nelson moved to intensify the blockade off Bastia. For the rest of the month, he carried out raids along the coast and intercepted enemy shipping. By late February, San Fiorenzo had fallen, and British troops under Lieutenant-General David Dundas had entered the outskirts of Bastia. However, Dundas merely assessed the enemy positions and then withdrew, arguing the French were too well entrenched to risk an assault. Nelson convinced Hood otherwise, but a protracted debate between the army and naval commanders meant Nelson did not receive permission to proceed until late March. Nelson began to land guns from his ships and emplace them in the hills surrounding the town. On 11 April, the British squadron entered the harbour and opened fire while Nelson took command of the land forces and commenced bombardment. After 45 days the town surrendered. Nelson then prepared for an assault on Calvi, working in company with Lieutenant-General Charles Stuart.
British forces landed at Calvi on 19 June, and immediately began moving guns ashore to occupy the heights surrounding the town. While Nelson directed a continuous bombardment of the enemy positions, Stuart's soldiers began to advance. On the morning of 12 July, Nelson was at one of the forward batteries when a shot struck one of the nearby sandbags protecting the position, spraying stones and sand. Nelson was struck by debris in his right eye and forced to retire from the position. However, his wound was soon bandaged and he returned to action. By 18 July, most enemy positions had been disabled, and Stuart, supported by Nelson, stormed the main defensive position at night and captured it. Repositioning their guns, the British brought Calvi under constant bombardment, and the town surrendered on 10 August. Nelson did regain partial sight in his damaged eye, but said he could only "...distinguish light from dark but no object."
Genoa and the fight of the Ça Ira
After the occupation of Corsica, Hood ordered Nelson to open diplomatic relations with the city-state of Genoa, a strategically important potential ally. Soon after, Hood returned to England and was succeeded by Admiral William Hotham as commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. Nelson put into Leghorn and, while Agamemnon underwent repairs, met with other naval officers at the port and entertained a brief affair with local Adelaide Correglia. Hotham arrived with the rest of the fleet in December, whereupon Nelson and Agamemnon sailed on a number of cruises with them in late 1794 and early 1795. On 8 March, news reached Hotham of the French fleet at sea heading for Corsica. He immediately set out to intercept them, and Nelson eagerly anticipated his first fleet action. The French were reluctant to engage, and the two fleets shadowed each other on 12 March. The following day, two of the French ships collided, allowing Nelson to engage the much larger 84-gun Ça Ira. This engagement went on for two and a half hours, until the arrival of two French ships forced Nelson to veer away, having inflicted heavy casualties and considerable damage.
The fleets continued to shadow each other, before making contact again on 14 March at the Battle of Genoa. Nelson joined the other British ships in attacking the battered Ça Ira, now under tow from Censeur. Heavily damaged, the two French ships were forced to surrender, and Nelson took possession of Censeur. Defeated at sea, the French abandoned their plan to invade Corsica and returned to port.
Skirmishes and the retreat from Italy
Nelson and the fleet remained in the Mediterranean throughout summer 1795. On 4 July, Agamemnon sailed from San Fiorenzo with a small force of frigates and sloops bound for Genoa. On 6 July, Nelson ran into the French fleet and found himself pursued by several, much larger ships-of-the-line. He retreated to San Fiorenzo, arriving just ahead of the pursuing French, who broke off as Nelson's signal guns alerted the British fleet in the harbour. Hotham pursued the French to the Hyères Islands, but failed to bring them to a decisive action. Several small engagements were fought, but to Nelson's dismay, he saw little action. Nelson returned to operate out of Genoa, intercepting and inspecting merchantmen and cutting-out suspicious vessels in enemy and neutral harbours. Nelson formulated ambitious plans for amphibious landings and naval assaults to frustrate the progress of the French Army of Italy now advancing on Genoa, but could excite little interest in Hotham. In November, Hotham was replaced by Sir Hyde Parker, but the situation in Italy was rapidly deteriorating for the British: the French were raiding around Genoa and strong Jacobin sentiment was rife within the city.
A large French assault at the end of November broke the allied lines, forcing a general retreat towards Genoa. Nelson's forces were able to cover the withdrawing army and prevent them from being surrounded, but he had too few ships and soldiers to materially alter the strategic situation. The British were forced to withdraw from the Italian ports. Nelson returned to Corsica on 30 November, angry and depressed with the British failure, and questioning his future in the navy.
Jervis and the evacuation of the Mediterranean
In January 1796, the new commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediterranean was Sir John Jervis, who appointed Nelson to exercise independent command over the ships blockading the French coast as a commodore. Nelson spent the first half of the year conducting operations to frustrate French advances and bolster Britain's Italian allies. Despite minor successes in intercepting small French warships—like at the action of 31 May 1796, when Nelson's squadron captured a convoy of seven small vessels—he began to feel British presence on the Italian peninsula was becoming useless. In June, Agamemnon was sent to Britain for repairs, and Nelson was appointed to the 74-gun HMS Captain.
The same month, the French thrust towards Leghorn and were certain to capture the city. Nelson hurried there to oversee the evacuation of British nationals and transport them to Corsica. After this, Jervis ordered him to blockade the newly captured French port. In July, he oversaw the occupation of Elba, but by September the Genoese had broken their neutrality to declare in favour of the French. By October, the Genoese position and continued French advances led the British to decide the Mediterranean fleet could no longer be supplied. They ordered it to be evacuated to Gibraltar. Nelson helped oversee the withdrawal from Corsica, and by December 1796 was aboard the frigate HMS Minerve, covering the evacuation of the garrison at Elba. He then sailed for Gibraltar.
During the passage, Nelson captured the Spanish frigate Santa Sabina, and placed Lieutenants Jonathan Culverhouse and Thomas Hardy in charge of the captured vessel; taking the frigate's Spanish captain on board Minerve. Santa Sabina was part of a larger Spanish force, and the next morning two Spanish ships-of-the-line and a frigate were sighted closing fast. Unable to outrun them, Nelson was initially determined to fight, but Culverhouse and Hardy raised the British colours and sailed northeast, drawing the Spanish ships after them until being captured, giving Nelson the opportunity to escape. Nelson went on to rendezvous with the British fleet at Elba, where he spent Christmas. He sailed for Gibraltar in late January, and after learning the Spanish fleet had sailed from Cartagena, stopped just long enough to collect Hardy, Culverhouse, and the rest of the prize crew captured with Santa Sabina, before pressing on through the straits to join Jervis off Cádiz.
Battle of Cape St Vincent
Nelson joined Sir John Jervis' fleet off Cape St Vincent and reported the Spanish movements. Jervis decided to engage and the two fleets met on 14 February 1797. Nelson found himself towards the rear of the British line and realised it would be a long time before he could bring Captain into action. Nelson disobeyed orders and wore ship, breaking from the line and heading to engage the Spanish vanguard of the 112-gun San Josef, the 80-gun San Nicolas, and the 130-gun Santísima Trinidad. Captain engaged all three, assisted by HMS Culloden, which had come to Nelson's aid. After an hour of exchanging broadsides left Captain and Culloden badly damaged, Nelson found himself alongside San Nicolas. He led a boarding party across, crying "Westminster Abbey or glorious victory!" and forced her to surrender. San Josef attempted to come to San Nicolas' aid, but became entangled with her compatriot and was left immobile. Nelson led his party from the deck of San Nicolas onto San Josef and captured her as well. As night fell, the Spanish fleet broke off and sailed for Cádiz. Four ships had surrendered to the British and two of them were Nelson's. It was the first time in 300 years when a British flag officer led a boarding party.
Nelson was victorious, but had disobeyed direct orders. Jervis liked Nelson and so did not officially reprimand him, but did not mention Nelson's actions in his official report of the battle. He did write a private letter to First Lord of the Admiralty, George Spencer, where he said Nelson "contributed very much to the fortune of the day". Nelson also wrote several letters about his victory and reported his action was being referred to amongst the fleet as "Nelson's Patent Bridge for boarding first rates". Nelson's account was later challenged by Rear Admiral William Parker, who was aboard HMS Prince George. Parker claimed Nelson was supported by several more ships than he had acknowledged, and San Josef had already struck her colours by the time Nelson boarded her. Nelson's account of his role prevailed and the victory was well received in Britain; Jervis was made Earl St Vincent and on 17 May, Nelson was made a Knight of the Bath. On 20 February, in a standard promotion according to his seniority and unrelated to the battle, Nelson was promoted to Rear Admiral of the Blue.
1797–1801
Action off Cádiz
Nelson was given HMS Theseus as his flagship and ordered to lie off Cádiz on 27 May 1797; monitoring the Spanish fleet and awaiting the arrival of Spanish treasure ships from the American colonies. He carried out a bombardment and personally led an amphibious assault on 3 July. During the action, Nelson's barge collided with the Spanish commander's barge, and hand-to-hand combat ensued between the two crews. Nelson was nearly cut down twice, and both times his life was saved by a sailor named John Sykes, who took the blows himself and was badly wounded. The British raiding force captured the Spanish boat and towed her back to Theseus. During this period, Nelson developed a scheme to capture Santa Cruz de Tenerife, aiming to seize a large quantity of specie from the treasure ship Principe de Asturias, which was reported to have recently arrived.
Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife
The battle plan called for a combination of naval bombardments and an amphibious landing. The initial attempt was called off after adverse currents hampered the assault and the element of surprise was lost. Nelson immediately ordered another assault, but was beaten back. He prepared for a third attempt to take place during the night. Although he personally led one of the battalions, the operation ended in failure as the Spanish were better prepared than expected and had secured strong defensive positions. Several of the boats failed to land at the correct positions in the confusion, while those that did were swept by gunfire and grapeshot. Nelson's boat reached its intended landing point, but as he stepped ashore, he was hit in the right arm by a musketball which fractured his humerus in multiple places. He was rowed back to Theseus to be attended by its surgeon Thomas Eshelby. Upon arriving at his ship, he refused to be helped aboard, declaring:
"Let me alone! I have yet legs left and one arm. Tell the surgeon to make haste and get his instruments. I know I must lose my right arm and the sooner it is off, the better".
A tourniquet saved him from exsanguinating, and Eshelby amputated most of his right arm. Within half an hour, Nelson had returned to issuing orders to his captains. Years later, he would excuse himself to Commodore John Thomas Duckworth for not writing longer letters as he was not naturally left-handed. Later on, he developed the sensation of phantom limb in the area of his amputation and declared he had "found the direct evidence of the existence of soul". Meanwhile, a force under Sir Thomas Troubridge had fought their way to the main square but could go no further. Unable to return to the fleet because their boats had sunk, Troubridge was forced to enter into negotiations with the Spanish commander, and the British were allowed to withdraw. The expedition failed to achieve any of its objectives and left a quarter of the landing force dead or wounded. The squadron remained off Tenerife for a further three days, and by 16 August had rejoined Lord John Jervis' fleet off Cádiz. Despondent, Nelson wrote to Jervis:
"A left-handed Admiral will never again be considered as useful, therefore the sooner I get to a very humble cottage the better, and make room for a better man to serve the state".
Post operative pain led to Nelson's return to England accompanied by Thomas Eshelby. He returned to England aboard HMS Seahorse, arriving at Spithead on 1 September. He was met with a hero's welcome; the British public had lionised Nelson after Cape St Vincent, and his wound earned him sympathy. They refused to attribute the defeat at Tenerife to him, preferring instead to blame poor planning on the part of St Vincent, the Secretary at War, William Windham, or even Prime Minister William Pitt.
Return to England
Nelson returned to Bath with Fanny, before moving to London in October 1797 to seek expert medical attention for his amputation wound. While in London, news reached him of Admiral Duncan having defeated the Dutch fleet at the Battle of Camperdown. Nelson exclaimed he would have given his other arm to be present there. He spent the last months of 1797 recuperating in London, during which time he was awarded the Freedom of the City of London and a pension of £1,000 (equivalent to £108,600 in 2025) a year. He used this money to buy Round Wood Farm near Ipswich, and intended to retire there with Fanny. Despite his plans, Nelson was never to live there.
Although surgeons were unable to remove the central ligature from his amputation site which had caused considerable inflammation and infection, it came out of its own accord in early December, and Nelson rapidly began to recover. Eager to return to sea, he began agitating for a command and was promised the 80-gun HMS Foudroyant. As she was not yet ready for sea, Nelson was instead given command of the 74-gun HMS Vanguard, and he appointed Edward Berry as his flag captain. French activities in the Mediterranean theatre were raising concern in the Admiralty, as Napoleon was gathering forces in Southern France but the destination of his army was unknown. Nelson and Vanguard were to be dispatched to Cádiz to reinforce the fleet. On 28 March 1798, Nelson hoisted his flag and sailed to join Earl St Vincent. St Vincent sent him on to Toulon with a small force to reconnoitre French activities.
Hunting the French
Nelson passed through the Strait of Gibraltar and took up position off Toulon by 17 May, but his squadron was dispersed and blown southwards by a strong gale which struck the area on 20 May. While the British were battling the storm, Napoleon sailed with his invasion fleet commanded by Vice Admiral François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers. Nelson, reinforced with a number of ships from St Vincent, went in pursuit. Nelson began searching the Italian coast for Napoleon's fleet, but was hampered by a lack of frigates which could operate as fast scouts. Napoleon had already arrived at Malta and secured the island's surrender after a show of force. Nelson followed him there, but the French had already left by the time he arrived. After a conference with his captains, he decided Napoleon's most likely destination now was Egypt and headed for Alexandria. However, upon Nelson's arrival on 28 June, he found no sign of the French. Dismayed, he withdrew and began searching to the east of the port. During this time, Napoleon's fleet arrived in Alexandria on 1 July and landed their forces unopposed. Brueys anchored his fleet in Aboukir Bay, ready to support Napoleon if required.
